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THEODORE LESLIE SHEAR ae os 
A Wissertation 

TO THE BOARD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY as 
IN CONFORMITY WITH THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF ; 
ad i DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY se 

| BALTIMORE ; asa 

‘J. H. FURST COMPANY ; pape 


1906 





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THE INFLUENCE OF PLATO 
ON SAINT BASIL 


BY 


THEODORE LESLIE SHEAR 
{| 


A Dissertation 


SUBMITTED TO THE BOARD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY 
IN CONFORMITY WITH THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF 
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 


BALTIMORE 
J. H. FURST COMPANY 
1906 


Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2008 with funding from 
Microsoft Corporation 


httops://archive.org/details/influenceofplatoOOshearich 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
a EN TRO DUCDIONT cocececee cesses tessa nee teeeeoe reaeete sececcaeweeh et cceeete acest 1- 4 
ievintnence of elato on theyPatherssce-csesssccencsesecceee eee 1- 3 
Dee Gite] OLE Salt) bastlessscecn ad an secnedc ad bs Section te seescoeseenes ese 3- 4 
Il. INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON BAsin IN THEOLOGY AND ETHICS........... 5-21 
1. Existence, name and attributes of God................ecseeceeeees 5- 7 
Jee Nature Ole Mamas ci has sestacscsc canes seeacccu uses cnciens noses ee seeneneee 7-8 
3 Superiority of poul over’ body-. 2 2...s..2ccssesesscvonceeasens ehoee te 9-11 
A-Piimamortality. of the SOW ys. ccocassscscecseverecsencvosenseeusesesee 11-12 
SMA TELE CSSATICVICERS adoRoasta les sets ee aseaccsteecosuse conto de seen eee aa 12-21 

628 Scheme: ol the: LOuUrT: VATEUCS Ses ssce eat coe soe eeetannecenceee eter ane 18 
III. INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON BASIL IN PHILOSOPHY. ..........c0ceeceee oes 21-37 
13 Voluntary and involuntary action:.......:./50..2+2secnsnaesadseane 21-22 
2. Relation of the Hexaemeron to Plato’s Timaeus................ 23-37 

ARE ISLET Ce OL CREATOR eset chen aecane erence denen ae cee 24 

pet Creation Of UNLVerses.- ses ese eee oree eee eee 25 
é. ‘Pheary of elements ,)2s2-:. siege ste osbon sedesecesoescdcvaoets 26-28 
ad: ‘Nature and’ form’ of universe: .:-.4:..-2--2.se<s-0sses-eeee 28-31 
Gz  Begmnningk OF GME. isoisacas sa ceakasads doen seceeeeseened ssdaes 31-32 

f. Formation of creatures, man, beast, etc..............+++ 33 
TV. INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON BASIL EN LANGUAGE. ......20.00..0.scscccceees 37-58 
Ry) Dircet Quopahlonic. secs tc can se cae onde se ooned daten «cd ea eee een 37-39 
23) Comparisan-and: MetAPHOLs .<. 5..5:5.0+2+s0<Jess 4-2 <sanseenineceesasec 39-50 
SLAM MALICAM SLALCINEDIES feces accel oeceteoseens ceace cee en cece artes 50-51 
Aer Dterary, Al POROMS? iiA5566 2b acqnsaiits cgssieseh tal vai se endatccasooraess 51-55 
SHPIMASCE LIANG OUSS sa. sccioceoecs cay eee ies eaen ete ae reece d gue tule a eennee 56-58 
Wa CONGIUSIOND.cetccrcsssecssssanees Bees reba eaemetdtestnate coated cove tesa ete eshis 59-60 


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THE INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON SAINT.BASIL. 


INTRODUCTION. 
THE INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON THE CHURCH FATHERS. 


The relation of Plato to the Church Fathers is a subject that 
has received considerable attention in special treatises as well as 
in general works. <A brief survey of some of the results obtained 
will be given to show how widespread this influence was. 

Justin Martyr (c. 100-165 A. D.), the earliest apologist whose 
works have been preserved even in part, was a Platonist before 
he was a Christian and Platonic quotations abound in his works. 
Huber, however, points out, Die Philosophie der Kirchenvidter, 
p- 14, the difficulty of harmonizing Justin’s pro-Platonic and 
anti-Platonic views. In Apol., u, 13 (Migne, Pat. Gr., v1, 
p- 465, B. 11) he states that the teachings of Plato are not 
foreign to Christ, and then again in many places we find that he 
attacks the heathen philosophers, Plato, Aristotle, ete. ; see Cohor. 
ad Graecos, chap. 5 ff., and declares Plato’s inconsistencies in 
chap 7.’ But whether as an advocate or an opponent of Plato’s 
doctrines he shows a thorough knowledge of his works, quoting 
from the Republic, Timaeus, Meno and Phaedrus. 

Similar views of the importance of Plato were likewise held 
by Athenagoras, a contemporary of Justin, and a man who, like 
Justin, was trained in the Greek philosophy, see Huber, op. cit., 
p- 24, and Ackermann, Das Christliche im Plato und in der 
platonischen Philosophie, p. 3. 

The theological nature of the work of Irenaeus (c. 130- 
202 a. D.) that has been preserved to us, Contra Haereses, does 


1See attack on Justin’s authorship of this work by A. Puech in Mélanges Henri 
Weil, 1898, pp. 395-406. 


1 


b> 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


not offer very much opportunity for reference to Plato, but even 
in Irenaeus two quotations from Plato are cited, from the Laws 
and the Timaeus. These quotations are in the same section, 
Migne, vu, 3, 25, 5, and are cited by Irenaeus in praise and 
defence of Plato. 

Tertullian (c. 150-220 a. Dp.) quotes Plato frequently but con- 
demns him. He says that Plato has become the source of all 
heresies, that the philosopher serves only for his own glory and, 
therefore, between him and the Christian a great difference exists.’ 

Clement of Alexandria (150-215 a. p.) and his pupil Origen 
(185-254 a. p.) were both great admirers of Plato. Both quote 
Plato frequently, though Clement very much more frequently 
than Origen, and both emphasize the Christian element in his 
works in their attempt to harmonize Platonism and Christianity.’ 

Passing over others we may mention further Hippolytus who 
flourished early in the third century, and who wrote a work 
against Plato, and Arnobius, c. 200 A. p., who ealls Plato the 
“sublime head and pillar of philosophy,” Adv. Gent., 1, 8, and 
quotes him several times. 

We come next to the fourth century and to two authors, 
contemporaries of St. Basil, whose relation to Plato has been 
discussed in special dissertations. Gregory of Nyssa, Basil’s 
brother, is shown to be dependent on Plato for many of his 
statements on the immortality of the soul by A. M. Akulas, 
n wept adavacias THs Wuyfs dd&a Tod dadtwvos év cuyKpice 
mpos tHv Vpnyopiov tod Nvaons, Athens, 1888. 

The second author is Julian, the fellow-student of Basil, and 
afterwards the Emperor Julian. Prof. Gildersleeve in his essay 
on the Emperor Julian, Essays and Studies, p. 373, remarks that 
“his prodigious memory seems to haye held in solution all Plato.’ 
And further, W. C. France in a dissertation entitled, “The 
Emperor Julian’s relation to the new sophistiec and neo-Platon- 
ism, with a study of his style,” Chicago, 1896, makes the 
statement, p. 71, that Plato is Julian’s favorite prose author. In 


1See Huber, p. 106, and Ackermann, p. 11. 
? Ackermann, pp. 6 and 7. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 5) 


support of this she cites statisties from Schwarz, Philologus 51, 
1892, p. 642, which show that in Julian there are fifty-one 
quotations from Plato, a number that greatly exceeds the quota- 
tions of all the other prose authors combined. To this France 
also adds a list of some thirty-five cases of Platonic reminiscence. 

From this brief statement of a few facts bearing on the relation 
of Plato to the leaders of early Christian thought it is plain that 
Ackermann’s observation is entirely correct when he remarks on 
p- 8 that it seems very difficult for the Christian Fathers of the 
first centuries to escape the influence of Plato. 

Now the purpose of the present study is to show how far the 
influence of Plato is manifested in the works of Basil, but before 
proceeding to the subject proper it is desirable to take a rapid 
review of Basil’s early life and education in order to show the 
tendency of his preliminary training. 


OUTLINE OF LiFe oF St. Basit..! 


The period of Basil’s life that was devoted mainly to education 
comes before the time of his decision to consecrate himself to the 
work of the Church and falls naturally into four divisions: 1, his 
term of study under his father; 2, his term at Caesarea; 3, at 
Constantinople, and 4, at Athens. 

Basil the elder was a famous teacher of Pontus. The biogra- 
phers devote much space to eulogy of the two families that were 
united in this Basil and St. Emmelia, and describe this couple as 
endowed with the highest attainments and most excellent virtues. 
If we may judge from the history of their children this record 
must be true, for the oldest daughter Macrina has been canonized 
a saint and three sons were bishops in their life-time and were 
afterwards made saints. If it is a great thing to receive glory 


1The chief authorities consulted for the life of St. Basil are: Bohringer, Die 
drei Kappadozier, p. 1 ff. ; Gregorius Nazianzenus, Oratio in laudem Basilii Magni, 
Miene, v. 36, 494, A 1ff.; Maranus, Vita Sancti Basilii, Preface of Migne, v. 29, 
p. vf. 


4 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


from one’s ancestors, much greater is it to add glory to them, 
says Gregory, p. 504. 

By this father, then, an éyxv«duos rraidevors was given to Basil, 
see Greg. 509, B 14, and of this education Paul Allard says that 
it consisted of instruction in the art of writing well and speaking 
well, but the study of this comprehends that of the ancient 
classics with their immense repertoire of prose and verse.’ The 
phrase “ancient classics” here refers only to Greek literature as 
the Greek Fathers did not “condescend to learn Latin.” ” 

The dates of the events of Basil’s early life are all very 
uncertain, but it seems probable that he did not go to Caesarea 
until compelled by the death of his father to seek a teacher 
elsewhere. This is the reasoning of Maranus who estimates the 
date at about 342 a. p. when Basil was thirteen. At what time 
he left Caesarea and the extent of his residence in Constantinople 
it is impossible to determine, but he reached Athens probably in 
351 and remained there five years, Vit. Bas., xu. The Vita also 
mentions the teachers of Basil at Athens as Himerius and 
Prohaereses, Hesychius and Terence among others, while Gregory, 
p- 528 A, describes Basil as excelling in his various branches of 
study, in rhetoric, in Greek literature and in philosophy. 

Soon after his return from Athens Basil entered eagerly into 
church work and was ordained presbyter in 362. He was an 
assistant to Eusebius, upon whose death he was elected to succeed 
to the bishopric of Caesarea in 370, an office which he lived to 
hold for only nine years. 

Basil’s wide knowledge of Greek is shown in his works by 
many references to the Greek legends and in many quotations 
from the Greek authors from Homer down, and we shall now 
pass to the consideration of the extent of his indebtedness to 


Plato. 


1 Revue d. Questions Historiques, 1898, N. S. 20, p. 10. 
* Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, u, p. 3. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 5 


INFLUENCE OF PLATO on BAsiIt IN THEOLOGY 
AND ETHICS. 


The question of the resemblance of the theology of Plato to 
the Christian theology has been discussed by Ackermann on 
p- 38 ff. of the work already cited. Ackermann shows that this 
resemblance is very close in regard to the doctrines of the exist- 
ence, essence, name, attributes and works of God. These topics 
will be taken up in order here in so far as similarities in Basil 
lead to their consideration.’ 

Basil assumes, naturally, the existence of God since, for 
example, before the creation of the universe there must have 
been an existing cause, and that was God, see p. 25 for this 
statement and its parallel in Plato. 

As the unity of the Godhead was one of the fundamental 
tenets of Christianity it is also assumed everywhere in Basil, for 
Plato’s belief in monotheism Ackermann refers to Polit. 270 A 
and Tim, 31 A. 

In regard to the compositeness of the divine nature Basil 
says 4, 105, B 1: xa@apa ovvlécews 7) Oeia pvows, with which 
Johnston, edition of Basil’s De Spiritu Sancto, p. 48, note, com- 
pares Plato’s Republic, 611 B: o&d padiov aidvov eivar ovvOeTov &x 
modrov. To this may be added Phaedo, 80 A, To pév Oetw Kat 
aOavatm .... Kal ddvadvT@ ... . OopoldTaTor eivas uy, TO O€ 
avOpworive Kal OvnT@... . Kal duadvT@ . . . . OpowdTaTor EivaL 
ca@ua. Compare also Rpd. 381 Af. 

Next in regard to the name for God, @e0s, both make attempts 
at etymologies, Bas. 4, 265, A 5: mapa yap to TeOeKévar ta 
mavta i) Gedo Oar Ta TavTa oO Oeds dvoudSerar. 

Crat. 8397 D: jALov Kal cernvny Kal yhv Kal doTpa Kal ovpavey: 
ate oty avTa opavres Travta ael idvta Spoum Kat Oéovta, amo 
TavTns THS pUcEews THS Tod Oeiv Geodrs avTovs érrovoudoa. 

These explanations are quite far apart and cannot be connected 


1All references are to the Teubner text of Plato, and to Migne’s edition of 
Basil, vols. I-1v (Patrolog. Graec. cursus, vols. 29-32), excluding vol. 1 and other 
portions considered spurious by Migne. 


6 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


in any way. Similarly with reference to the titles and attributes 
of God, though as Ackermann points out Plato’s phraseology in 
various passages is identical with that of the Fathers it would be 
utterly ridiculous to suggest that in this subject the Fathers, or 
particularly Basil, were influenced by Plato. 

For example Basil, 1, 525, B 14, says: a@pOaprov yap Kat 
ayévyntov eivar Tov Ocov Tov brov reyower, and 532, C 1: Geos 
.... olov 6 apOapTos, 6 aOavaTos, 0 adpatos. 

Such statements as these are paralleled by Plato’s description 
of God in Tim. 27D as 76 év del, yéveow &é ov« éxov,... . TO 
pev 82 vonoe meta Adyou TepiAnT TOY, del KaTA TavTAa dv, but of 
course there is no connection between the references. 

There are also several similar statements in the two authors in 
regard to God as the creator of the universe, Bas. 3, 201, A 12: 
Tapa Tov Ta TavTa cvoTnoapevov Oeov. 

Ib. 212, B 7: rod Oeod tod Ta TWavTa cvoTnoapéevon. 

Tim. 29 D: 76 wav tebe 0 Evmotas Evvéorycer, and Ib. 30 B: 
Euuotas 76 wav. Also 41 D, 53 B, ete. 

Another parallelism that may be added here has reference to 
God as the protector of man, Bas. 3, 329, C 7: audiPoror 
yivovtat.... eb €aTe Geos erripedovmevos TOV THOE. 

Phaed. 62D: 6 viv 6) éedréyopuev edtroyos Ever, TO Gedy TE Eivar 
TOV €TTLMLEAOUMEVOV MOV. 

These and similar references are interesting as showing the 
relation between Plato and a Christian writer like Basil, but they 
are merely the points in which Plato approaches the Christian 
doctrine of which in the present instance Basil happens to be the 
expositor, and they might be paralleled easily in any doctrinal 
Christian writer, ancient or modern. 

It is hardly conceivable that St. Basil, the great theologian, the 
mighty leader of orthodoxy during the fourth century, was 
dependent on Plato for any part of his theology. It happens 
that some of Plato’s statements approach the Christian ideal and 
were interpreted from the Christian point of view, but the 
Christian doctrines were not moulded to the Platonic form. 
Attempts were made to prove Plato a Christian, but the Church 
would hardly maintain that Christ was a Platonist, as the impious 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 7 


Celsus seems to suggest when he declares that Jesus borrowed 
from Plato perverting his words, see Origen, Contra Celsum, 
vI, 16. 


ETHIcs. 


We pass next to the consideration of man and his relation to 
his fellow-man, to the study of the connection of Plato and Basil 
on the ethical side. And first in regard to the nature of man and 
the reason why he was made to stand upright in contrast to the 
other creatures, Bas. 3, 216, C 4, says: ép@vov érdace povoy TeV 
Céwv tov avOpwrov ty é& avtov Tov oynmatos eldns OTe ex THS 
avobev cvyyevetas eat 7) San cov. Ta wey yap TeTpdTroda TraVTa 
mTpos Tv yhv Préret, Kal pos THY yaoTépa VvéveuKev* aVOpwTr@ Sé 
e f ‘ > § id > / 

ETOLuN POS ovpavoy n avaBreWis. 

Tim. 90 A: 70 6€ wepi Tod KUpiwtdtrou Tap’ jmiv r~ruyis 
” r fc a G ” p evans.| / \ ane. k 
eldovs diavocicOar dei THOE, WS apa avTo Saiwova Oeds ExdotTw 
dédaxe, ToUTO 5 by hapmev okey pev Huov et AKpw TO TOLAaTL 

’ 4 les ee alee Pate Patt, 
mpos 5€ THv év ovpav@ Evyyévecay amo yhs nuads alpew ws ovtas 
\ > BA > \ > / > / / ’ lal 
@uTov ovK éyyelov AAAA ovpdmov, opOdTaTa RéyovTes: éxeiMev 
yap, 0ev 1) TpaTn THS ~ruyhs yeveows Edu, TO Oeiov tiv Kehbadnv 

Kal pilav uav avakpepavydy opOot Tay TO coma. 

The essential points in these statements are obviously the same. 
The Creator made the body of man to stand in an upright 
position and, therefore, the soul of man should be naturally 
inclined toward the things of heaven rather than toward the 
things of earth. To be particularly emphasized is the similar use 

, . oe 5 A ” / 5) \ € 
of Euyyévera in Basil’s phrase é« THs avobev cvyyeveias éotlv 7 

, ‘« . \ \ ? ? led s 
f#n cov and its Platonic parallel wpos tiv év otpave Evyyeverav 
Has aLpeELv. | 

It may be mentioned also that the comparison with the beasts 
is not lacking in the Timacus, but in 91 E appears in a somewhat 
similar form, see p. 33. 

Still further on the nature of man may be cited, Bas. 3, 917, 
A 6: jjmepov Kai Kowwrkorv Caov 6 avOpwrros Kal ody) povactiKdY 
ovdé ayptov. 

Legg. 766 A: avOpwrros 5é . . . . ipepov,. . . . matdelas pev 


8 The Influence of Plaio on Saint Basil. 


opOAs Tuxdv Kal picews evTVYoUS OeoTaTov HuEepwTatdv Te CaHov 
yiyver Oar puret. 

And again, Bas. 3, 581, C5: od Td opdpevdv éotiy 0 dvOpwros. 

Aa. 365 E: tis ~uyis és tov otxetov idpuleions torov To 
UrroderpOev cama, yedOes dv Kal adoxyov, ovK Extiv 0 avOpwrros. 

This reference to the pseudo-Platonic Axiochus is suggested by 
Padelford, Hssays on the Study and Use of Poetry by Plutarch and 
Basil the Great, p. 115, and the similarity in thought is certainly 
noteworthy. Both maintain that we must not be over-solicitous 
about the body to the neglect of the soul, because without the soul 
the body is nothing. E. R. Maloney, in his edition of Basil’s 
homily on Greek literature, note on this passage, p. 56, also says, 
“this sentence is taken from Plato,” but he gives no reference. 
Other parallel passages cited in this connection are Cicero, Somn. 
Seip. 8, and Lactantius, Divin. Instit. 2, 3, 8. The phrase of 
Lactantius is interesting enough to add, hoe enim quod oculis 
subiectum est non homo sed hominis receptaculum. 

This separation of body and soul is indeed even more distinctly 
stated, for we are told that man’s nature is not simple but two- 
fold, consisting of a body and a soul, as in Bas, 4, 248, D 6: 
ovx amdovs Tis odTOS éoTiv (sc. 0 AvOpwrros), ex THmaTOS Kal 
Wuyxs cuverTos. 

Tim. 34 B: wuyny 6€ eis TO wéoov avrov (sc. Tod avOperrov) 
Geis Sua TravTos Te éTeve Kai Ett EEwOev TO CHwa aby TrepteKddue 
TavTN. 

And a further subdivision is made into vods, yuyn and capa 
in Bas. 3, 204, A 9, and Tim. 30 A, but on these two statements 
there is no particular comment to be made except that shortly 
afterwards Basil seems to draw from the Timaeus again as indi- 
cated in the next citation. Wandinger, Hdition of Basil’s Homily 
to the Youth on Classical Literature, p. 44, in a note on this 
passage of Basil compares Phaedo 75 and Timaeus 52, but these 
references seem little to the point. 

Another phrase of Basil, which is not far removed from the 
one just cited, is the echo of the Timaeus to which reference is 
made above. Bas. 3, 216, A 15: ths Wwuxyfs cov thy Stvamy 


Tpos TO Tama cvvedyncen. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 9 


Tim. 73. B: ths wuyfs TO copate Evvdovperys. 

The idea of the binding of the soul to the body is so striking 
that its repetition would at once suggest borrowing. 

We next pass to the subject of the difference of the soul from 
the body and the superiority of the one to the other. 

Bas. 3, 644, C 10: écov yap Siapdpa o ovpavos amo THs yi, 

... TocovToy Siadhéper Wuyi) TopmaTos. 

Legg. 959 A: wuyny cdpatos eivac TO wav dvapepovaar. 

And the statement of the superiority of the soul also is to be 
noted in both authors : 

Bas. 3, 565, D 1: Kka® dc0v oxida Kail dvap Tav adrnOav 
amroneimeTar* warrov 6é, iv oikeoTépw ypnowuat Trapacelypate, 
dow Wy?) Tois TAoL TYLLwTEpAa THMLATOS. 

Tim. 34 C: 0 6€ (Oeds) Kat yevéoe: Kat apetn mpotépay Kai 
mpecButépayv >Wuynyv c@pmatos ws Seotretiv Kal apEovcay apEomevou 
Evvectnoato. 

Basil uses this fact of the soul’s superiority as a familiar 
comparison to illustrate the difference between life in heaven and 
life on earth, and he remarks in 565, C 9, that if one should 
gather together and comprehend into a unit all blessings that have 
been since the world began, not in the smallest degree would that 
unit be equal to the good things which he will find in heaven. 
Padelford, op. cit., p. 103, in a note on this passage refers to 
Plato’s Republic, 614 A, where, after reciting the benefits that 
accrue to the just man in his lifetime, the @@Aa, pic Pol and dapa 
from gods and men Plato adds that these are nothing either in 
number or magnitude compared to those which await a man when 
he is dead. 

Since now the soul is superior to the body we must cherish the 
soul but neglect the body : 

Bas. 3,581, A 1: rhs yuyns eripéreay eye, Tacav oyodnv 
avo TOV AdXrXwY AyovTas. ov bn Oty TO GHmwaTt SovAEvTEOV,.... 
adra TH Wuxyn Ta BéATLCTA TropLaTéoD. 

Phaed. 67 A: éyyutdt@ éodpeba Tod eidévar, éav OTL wadtoTa 
pndey omA@pev TO THmaTL pode Kowwvapev, . . . . GAA 
KkaBapevopev av’ avtov. Also Tim. 18 B should be compared 
here, émipédeay Exovtas apeTns Ova Travtos, THY addA@V éTI- 


10 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


TndeuLaT@V ayovTas eYoAnV, Where the expression in each clause 
is obviously identical with that of Basil, but from a study of the 
context it would seem that this whole section of Basil is dependent 
rather on the discussion in the Phaedo, ep. Bas. A 5, and Phaed. 
67 D. 

Another parallelism from the same sections may be mentioned 
in this connection. 

Bas. 3, 581, C9: xdOapows woyijs,.... Tas 1a THY aicOnoewn 
noovas atipave, un opOarpors éEotiav,. . . . by Oia TOV OTD 
1... MeAMOlaY.... KaTaXeElD. 

Phaed. 65 C: (4 Wuyn) royierar . . . . TOTE KaANOTA, STAY 
avTny TOUT@Y uNndev TrapAaduTrH, LNTE AKON MHTE Opis wHTE AdyNnd@v 
pod Tis HOovy, ... . OVKODY.... . ) TOU diroaddou uy?) uadoTa 
atimacve: TO o@pma. | 

The idea expressed in these statements is practically the same, 
that is, the mortification of the flesh, and the abstract sight and 
hearing of Plato are simply transferred by Basil to the concrete 
eyes and ears. ; 

There is also another pair of references to be added, Bas. 3, 
584, D 3, and Phaed, 66 C, where both attack the body as the 
cause that leads to the acquisition of wealth. All these quotations 
then are sufficient to show the similarity between these two dis- 
cussions and to indicate the Phaedo as the probable source of Basil. 

Bas. 3, 213, C 8: yveO bru TO pev Royixov eote Kal voepoy THs 
auyns, TO Sé mabntiKoy Te Kal Aroryor. 

Tim. Loc. 99 EB: tas pev yap avOpwrrivas Wuxyds TO wév NoyiKov 
€oTt Kal voepov, TO & aroyov Kal adpov. 

This reference from the Locrian summary is given because of 
the identity of phraseology. It is plainly an abridgment of the 
discussion in Tim. 69 C ff. of the two parts of the soul, the divine 
and the mortal, and we find it stated that the mortal part was 
subject to dewa Kal avayxaia TaOjpata, among others Oappos Kat 
poBov, appove EvpPovrw, and that these were all mingled aicOjoea 
adoyo, a description that justifies the adjectives used by Basil and 
the Locrian. Whether Basil is borrowing from this summary 
which was made before the second century A. D.' or is abstracting 


'See Christ, Gr. Lnt., 4th ed., p. 461, n. 3. 


The Influence of Plato. on Saint Basil. 11 


directly from Plato it is impossible to tell, but in any case the 
ultimate source is Plato. 

Again, in connection with the soul, Basil borrows from this 
same chapter of the 7imaeus when he describes the body as the 
chariot of the soul. 

Bas. 3, 549, A 1: uy... . Newry Tis ovca Kal voepd,.... 
Kal c@pa, TO TavTy Sobev dynwa Tpds Tov Biov. 

Tim. 69 C: waparaBovtes apynv Wwuyijs ‘alavatov, TO pera 
TovTO OvnTov copa avTH TepleTopvevoay Oynud TE TAY TO THpa 
édocav. Cf. Tim. 44 E. 

The next topic to be considered is the immortality of the soul. 
This subject appears frequently in Basil, though nowhere is it 
treated as a matter for argument. Various passages might be 
cited here where there is some similarity of statement between 
Plato and Basil, as many passages of Plato are quoted attesting 
his approach to the Christian views on this subject, but it seems 
useless to accumulate references when there is no evidence that 
Basil is in any way influenced by Plato. Therefore, only a few 
passages will be cited. 

Cocker, Christianity and G'reek Philosophy, p. 374, points out 
that Plato teaches that the immortal part of the soul was created 
or generated by God, and was not always existent. In regard 
then to the creation of the soul and the body, and the relation 
of one to the other Basil says, 1, 168, A 12: pn vowe 
mpeaButépay eivar (Thy Wuyiy TeV KTHVOV) THS TOD ToHpaTos 
avuToV UTocTdcews, nde émidiapévovcay peTa THY THS TapKOS 
duddvow, 

While this attests the fact of the creation of the soul it is a 
clear contradiction of Plato’s theory of the priority in creation of 
the soul, Jim. 34 B: tiv dé 8) Woynv ody as viv torépay 
eTLYELPOD MEV eye, OUTWS euNXaVicaTO Kal Oo Oeds vewTépay~ ov 
yap av dpyecOar pec BvTepov bd vewrTépou EvvépEas clacev.... 
o 6€ Kal yevéoes Kal apeTn mpoTépay Kal mpecBuTépay >uyiy 
cauatos ws Secroti Kal apEovcay apEopwévov Evvertyjcato. See 
also Tim. 69 C, quoted above, and Legg. 967 D: uy ws gore 
mpecPUTATOV aTravTwV boa youns meTeiAnhey aOavarter Te. 

The emphatic statement of Basil and the way in which he 


12 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


introduces it by the words 2) vowife would suggest that he had in 
mind such arguments on the other side as are given by Plato and 
wished to belittle them. 

Other statements on immortality are, Bas. 3, 204, B12: yvad 
cavtov THY dvow: bt OvnTov pév cov TO capa, AOavatos dé 7 
apux7. 

Phaedr. 245 C: yoy maoa abdvatos: To yap aekivntov 
adavatov, and Meno 81 B and Phaed. 70 A. 

We may add finally Bas. 3, 588, C 7, and Rpb. 608 D. 


VIRTUE AND VICE. 


The next subdivision of this subject deals with the considera- 
tion of some vices and virtues in connection with which various 
parallel references will be cited. 

The definition of evil is given by Basil, 3, 341 B 14: orépnous 
yap ayalod éott TO Kaxov, by the side of which is to be placed 
the statement in the Axiochus, 369 E: ty otepnoe Tov ayabav 
avrevodyev Kak@v alaOnouw. 

Then Basil continuing, in 341 C, draws an illustration from 
the eye. After the creation of the eye blindness came to exist 
through the loss of the eyes, so that if the eye had not been of a 
corruptible nature there could have been no blindness. otT@ kai 
TO KaKkov ovK ev (Ola brrapEa eoTiv, adda Tois THS Wuyhs Tnpebacw 
emruy (VeTal. 

Plato too uses the eye as an illustration, though in a slightly 
different way and in support of his statement that that which 
destroys and corrupts is evil, Rpb. 608 E. For as ophthalmia to 
the eyes and disease to the whole body, as mildew to grain, rot 
to wood and rust to iron, so 7o EvuduTov Kakov éExdotov Kal % 
Tovnpia ExacTov amodAAvow. 

Now these two statements are not as far apart as might appear 
at a glance, and in fact Plato’s thesis that the innate evil in each 
thing destroys it has been followed in the main by Basil. Blind- 
ness, he says, destroys the eyes, but surely blindness is the inborn 
evil of the eyes, for if the eyes had not been of a corruptible 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 18 


nature there could have been no blindness. Furthermore this 
passage of the Republic has been used several times by Basil, 
see p. 45, and without doubt he was very familiar with it, it 
therefore seems probable that we have another echo of it in the 
present case. 

In connection with the subject of evil, reference may be made 
to a pair of quotations which treat of the origin of diseases, Bas. 
3, 344 A 9 and Tim. 81 E. These passages resemble each other 
in several respects. In the first place the sum and substance of 
each statement is that the cause of disease is an abortion of nature. 
The body is formed with its own proper constitution, says Basil, 
éxticOn pev Ta CHa peTa THS TpeTOVENS av’Tois KaTaTKEUTS KATA 
gvowv, which is merely another form of Plato’s statement of the 
elements that make up the body, tertdpwv yap dvtwv yevov €& av 
oupTréemnye TO THma, YAS, Tupos Vdatds Te Kal aépos, while Basil’s 
évoonoe TOU KaTa diow TapatparTrevta is exactly equivalent to the 
phrase of Plato, ) mapa gvow mreoveEla Kali evdea . . . vdoous 
Tapeyel. 

Add to these resemblances the fact that this discussion in the 
Timaeus was a locus nobilissimus ac celebratissimus as Stallbaum 
calls it, note ad loc., and it is very probable that the passages 
are related. 

One of the vices that must be mentioned here as being the 
subject of some parallel statements in our two authors is anger. 
It is defined in Basil, 3, 369 A 9: éote yap Oupos pév otov EEapis 
Ts Kal avabvpiaois ofeia Tod mafouvs, which is to be compared 
with Cratylus, 419 E: @vpos 8€ ao rhs Ovcews Kai Cécews Tis 
wuxis éyou av TodTO TO dvoya, where in each case the fiery nature 
of the quality is recognized. Basil devotes an entire homily to 
the condemnation of anger, 3, 353 B 1 ff., but in spite of all that 
can be said against it he acknowledges that it is good and 
necessary under certain circumstances, as for the purpose of 
arousing strength and courage in the soul. In 3, 365 B 1 ff. this 
idea is developed in a way that is remarkably similar to the treat- 
ment of the subject in Rpb. 375 Af., and the resemblances of 
expression between these two sections may be emphasized. The 
first sentence in the passage cited from Basil, wpos woAda Tov THs 


14 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


apeTas Epyov eritndeov THS Wuyts TO Ovpoedés, is almost identi- 
cal with Plato’s ra TAs Wuyijs (sc. olov dei Tov PUAaxa eivat, fra), 
dre ye Ovjoedh. Then Basil says, adornpay (sc. Thy ux) Kat 
avdpeiav érrotnoev 0 Ovyos which is parallel to the question of 
Plato, avépeios .. . elvar . . . COeAHoer 0 pu) Oupoerdys ; also Basil’s 
description of anger, vedpov eos Ths Wuxfs o Oupds and ypyotpos 
6 Ouuos are balanced by the characterization in the Republic, 
dmayov Te Kal avixntov Ovuyos. 

But the most notable point of resemblance between the two 
passages is the use of the same comparison in the same way. 
This is the figure of the watch-dog which is gentle toward its 
master and acquaintances, but ferocious toward the stranger. 
This comparison is considered in its place under the subject of 
comparison, p. 44, but the similar expressions may be pointed 
out here. 

Basil describes one side of the dog’s nature as mpaos Kat 
xetponOns Tots @peXovar, which is the Platonic wpds tods cvvnbes 
TE Kal yvwpiwous TpaoTaTous, cvvnOns being also used by Basil in 
the same sense in another clause, tod 6 cuvydous avT@ Kal pidov 
éuBoncavtos vromticowv. But the dog has another side to his 
nature as well which is indicated by Basil in the words, zpos tay 
adXoTplav Kat dovnv Kai driv eEaypiovpevos, Kav Oeparreiay eye 
doxy, and this corresponds to the sentence of Plato in 376 A, 
Ripb., where he says of the dog, dv pev av iby ayvrta, yareTraive., 
ovdev O€ Kaxov mporerovOes. Thus then the similarity of phrase- 
ology together with the use of the same comparison would tend 
to prove that one passage is the source of the other. 

Another vice that is assailed by Basil is the insatiable desire 
for wealth and in connection with this topic there are several 
references to be cited. Basil, 3, 292 C 7, speaking of the dis- 
satisfaction of people with their possessions, says that they are 
always unhappy because no matter how wealthy they become they 
continually envy the man who is still wealthier. This same idea 
is expressed in Legg. 918 D. Other references are Bas. 3, 
293 A 8 and Legg. 870 A. But there is no particular comment 
to be made on these passages, for while the thought is similar 
there is no resemblance in the phraseology. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 15 


Now one excuse that the avaricious give for their practice of 
accumulating wealth is the necessity of making provision for their 
children and this idea, therefore, is the subject of attack by both 
our authors, see Bas. 3, 284 B 11 and 297 C 8, with which com- 
pare Legg. 729 A. | 

Another topic in this connection deals with the relation of 
wealth to war. Basil maintains that wealth is conducive of war, 
as by it the sinews of war are supplied, 3, 297 B 11: ws more 
mXovTOS, % TOD ToNeuou Urd0ecrs, bv dv YadrKeveTaL SmrAa, Sv dv 
axovata. Edn. So in the Republic, 422 A, the same point is 
recognized, 7Os Hiv 1 modus ola 7 ota Trodepelv, érrerdav 
xXpHmaTa py KEKTNMEVN 7, AAAwWS Te KAY TpdS peyaAnv TE Kal 
Wrovciav avayKacOn Trodepeiv. 

In reply to this Socrates, from a different point of view, argues 
that wealth is a hindrance to war as it introduces into a state 
luxury and effeminancy, and this also is the view stated in the 
Laws 831 E. 

Envy is another vice that is considered by St. Basil in a 
separate sermon, and some of his statements are not far removed 
from passages of the Philebus, though the resemblances seem due 
to the nature of the subject as in the case of the stock definition 
of envy given in Bas. 3, 373 A2: 0 p@dvos tHv éxovoay avrov 
uyny eEavarione, and A6 dvrn ydp €ote THS TOD mANoIOv 
evrpaylas 0 dOdvos, to be compared with Phil. 50 A: Tov yap 
hOdvov wporoyjoOar AUTnY THs Wuyhs jhuiv mada, and Ib., 
HdovaY Sé ert Tois TOY hidwv Kaxois ... TOY POdvov. See also 
Bas. 3, 373 C 8 and Phil. 48 B. 

Next we have to consider attempts to place the responsibility 
for the infliction of misfortune. People blame the gods for their 
troubles, a practice that is reprehended by both authors, Bas, 
24992) B 10, and 26s)\C5,) jand)| ‘Apb.)\\619) C.,) Wor, God 
is not the cause of evils. Basil makes this thought the 
subject of a special homily, 3, 329 A 1ff., and it is treated at 
some length in the Republic, 379 Bf. Bas. 3, 341 B10: dros 
8é prjte Oedv aitiov Hyod THs brapEews Tod KaKod, punte Ldlay 
imdctacw Tov KaKod eivac davtagov. Compare also 332 A 15. 
This same idea is expressed in the Republic, 380 B: kaxav dé 


16 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


aitiov davar Oedv Tin yiyverOar ayabov dvta, Siapayetéov Tavtt 
tporw, and C: uy tavtev aitioy tov Oedy adda Tov ayabar. 
Compare also Rpb. 379 C and Tim. 42 D. 

While the section of the Republic, from which these quotations 
have been taken, was used freely by Basil (see p. 52), and while 
he may have had this section in mind here, it is impossible to 
make any definite assertion of this as the subject is so purely 
theological, and the most we can do is to point out the similarity 
in the statements, where the same explanation is given, God is 
good, and therefore He cannot be the cause of evil. 

If then God is not the cause of evil, but man brings it upon 
himself, the question arises as to the extent of the freedom of the 
will. Basil in 3, 337 D9 holds that sin waits on our choice, 
and that it is in our power to be evil or to abstain from it. 
Further on, 345 A 1, he draws an illustration from the history 
of Adam, who on account of sin was excluded from Paradise and 
dia ToUTO HuapTe ev Ova pboxOnpav tpoaipeow. Basil is thus 
plain and unequivocal in his statement of the absoluteness of the 
freedom of the will, and this is in harmony with Plato’s teaching 
in the Republic, 617 E, that our lot does not choose us but we 
choose our lot, apetz b€ addécmotov, Hy TYn@v Kat atiwalwv mréov 
Kal €XaTTov avTHs exactos &&ea, aitia éEXopévouv: Beds avaitios. 
But on the other hand he makes a contrary statement in Tim. 
86 D when he remarks that no one is voluntarily evil, but that 
the evil man becomes so dca trovnpay é&w tiva Tod c@maTos Kal 
amraidevtov Tpopyy, see p. 32. On this confusion in Plato about 
necessity and free-will comment is made by Jowett, Translation of 
Plato, 3d ed., vol. m1, Int. to Timaeus, pp. 408 and 425. See 
also Gomperz, Griechische Denker, 11, pp. 237 ff. 


Virtue is the next topic to be considered on the basis of treat- 
ment by our two authors. Several parallel passages that show a 
decided resemblance are from Basil’s sermon to young men on 
education, and the second and third books of the Republic, which 
Basil has used frequently in this homily. First, then, in regard 
to the impressionability of the young Bas. 3, 572 A 4, says: ov 
[ikpov yap TO OpEXos olKELoTHTAa TLiva Kal GuYHnOELaY Tais TOV VvéwY 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. i 


apuyais THs apeThs éyyevérOa, érreirep apeTdotata TépuKev Eivat 
Ta TOV TOLOVTOY pabnpaTa. 

Rpb. 378 D: 6 yap véos ovy oids Te Kpive 6 Ti Te bdvoLa Kal 
d un, AAN & av THALKOVTOS oY AABy év Tais ddEas, duTeKIUTTA TE 
Kal apetaotata iret yiyveo Oa. 

It is shown on p. 55 that this passage of Basil is probably an 
echo of the Republic, 377 A. The section immediately following 
in Basil is parallel to Mpb. 364 A, and the citations before 
us simply furnish more evidence that Basil is drawing from this 
part of the Republic. So Jahn supports Hess who alters the 
totovtTwy of Basil to TyAcKovTwy after the analogy of the text of 
Plato, Neue Jahrbiicher, 49, 1847, p. 389. Another pair of 
passages bearing on this subject may be cited from about the same 
sections in both works, bas. 3,575 D1 and Rpb. 360 D. But 
in still another case there is even a greater similarity, Bas. 3, 
572 C3: tocovtov deity aicytynv obrAHoar yupvov oferta, érerdy 
mep avtov (sc.’Odvocéa) dperi avtl (matiov Kexoounpmevor érroince. 
Rpb. 457 A: drobutéov 8) tais Tov hvdrdKov yovakiv, éereirep 
apeTny avTl tmatiov dudidoovtat, Kal KoLYwYNnTéoY TrOAELOV. 

The resemblance here is between the women exercising nude in 
order to receive the greatest benefit, and the naked Odysseus 
appealing to Nausicaa for help. Practically the same phrase is 
used in each case, ‘virtue covered him instead of clothes,’ and 
equally well in regard to Odysseus might be used the summary 
of this matter in the Republic, 457 B: to pwév @pédLpov Kadov, 
TO d€ BraPepov aicypdv. This quotation, ‘as has been shown, is 
found in Basil in connection with many reminiscences from the 
Republic, and there is no doubt of the relation in the present 
instance. 

Again, on the subject of virtue, Basil says, 3, 572 D5: povn 
d€ KTnMaTwV 1 dpeTn avadaipetov Kat Govt. Kal TEeAEVTHOAVTL 
mapauévovoa. This is quite similar to the statement of the Rpbd. 
618 E in connection with the story of Er. The choice of lots 
should be made in the line of virtue which leads to that which is 
more just, éwpaxayev yap, OTe CovTi Te Kal TeXEUTHOAVTL avTN 
kpatiotn aipeois. There may be compared here too Bas. 4, 69 C 6 
and Legg. 730 B. 


18 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


Basil further, in 1, 316 C 2, makes a summarized statement in 
regard to the four great virtues, dpdévnows, cwppootyn, Sikaroovvn 
and d&vépela, which he defines in terms quite similar to those used 
in the elaborate discussion of these virtues found in the Republic, 
427 Eff. Plato in 430 B gives the definition of avdpela as dtvapus 
SdEns pO%s Sevav mépe Kat yxy, which is followed closely by Basil, 
who calls it the principle wept Sever cat od Sevadv. Another close 
parallelism may be indicated in the definition of duavoctvn as the 
allotment of good and evil to each according to his due, bas. 3, 
401 BQ: Stxavoctvn éotw és atroveuntiKh Tod Ka7’ a&iav, and 
Plato, Rpb. 332 D: % obv 8 riot th arrodibotca Téyvyn SiKaLoovyy 
dv kadoito; ... % Tos dirow Te Kal éyOpois wpedelas TE Kat 
BraBas atrod.idovca. 

These examples cited show the greatest resemblances, but on 
the whole there is no great difference between the two sets of 
definitions. It is true that the doctrine of the four cardinal 
virtues was enunciated for the first time in the Republic, but it 
must be remembered that this doctrine gained great popularity 
and was used much by the church writers, so the question of 
connection in the present instance is a very doubtful one. This 
is also true when Basil again seems to have reference to this 
scheme of the four virtues in 3, 381 B 3, with which Wyttenbach * 
compares Republic, 560 D, for the resemblance here is in form of 
expression only and is very slight, while there is no similarity of 
context. 

Finally in this connection there are two parallel references 
which relate the misfortunes of a virtuous man who holds a 
public office. Basil in 4, 1041 D 3 tells how it is an old story 
that those who aspire to virtue refrain from accepting public 
office, whereas the venal man considers office as the greatest good 
since it will enable him to benefit his friends, take vengeance on 
his foes and acquire great possessions. Plato in the same line of 
thought says, Rpb. 343 E, that if a just man takes office he 
neglects his own business, can get nothing from the public 
treasury, and has trouble with his family and friends because he 


1 Note on Plutarch’s de discern. adul. ab amico, 56 B. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 19 


will not assist them unjustly; but in the case of the unjust man 
the opposite is true. While these descriptions are given from 
different points of view, the first from the point of view of the 
rascal and the second from that of the honest man, there is 
considerable similarity in the general tone and arrangement. 
Both emphasize the fact that a magistracy held by a dishonest 
man is used by him to advance his own interests and to benefit 
his friends. The resemblance is worth noting and is sufficient to 
suggest the possibility that Basil had in mind the passage of 
Plato. 


We now pass to the presentation of some miscellaneous parallel- 
isms connected with the general subject of ethics. A similar 
statement in regard to friendship, namely, that it is produced by 
association is given by both authors, Bas. 3, 348 C 3, and 
Phaedr. 240 C. 

Another similarity in the line of definition is found in Bas. 3, 
217 C12: t& yap éotw apetn, vuKTos Kal juépas év Siaxyvoen 
wuyns pardpov Kal yeyavopevov dvayev. 

Crat. 419 C: yapa d€ tH Siaytoe Kal evrropia Ths pons THs 
apuyxis Eouce KEKAN MEV. 

It is to be noted here that the same phrase, dudyvows THs Wuxis, 
is used by Basil in the same connection in which it is found in 
Plato, that is, in definition or explanation of yapa. In fact, 
shortly before the sentence quoted above he asks, r/ weév ovv To 
xatpev avté; which he then proceeds to explain. It is, there- 
fore, not unlikely that there is a connection between these two 
passages. 

There is a more striking resemblance in the next pair of cita- 
tions, Bas. 3, 588 A 2: ov« got 6 warrov hevetéov TO cwpPpovodvTt 
Tov mpos dofav Shy Kal Ta Tos TOANOIS SoKOvVTA TpocKOTrElD. 

Rpb. 362 A: dycover tov adiKov, dte . . . ov mpos ddEav CavTa, 
ov Soxeiv ddikov aAN eivas Drew. 

Plato devotes considerable space in the Republic, 362 ff., to the 
discussion of this matter of appearances, making Adimantus argue 
in opposition to Socrates for the necessity of employing such a 
veil before one’s real self. There is no doubt that Basil had this 


20 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


treatment in mind when he wrote the present passage. In 565 C 
Adimantus says: ‘Since appearance overwhelms actuality and is 
master of happiness, to this I must turn my whole attention, 
before me and around me I must trace out the sketch of virtue, 
but behind I must drag the cunning and crafty fox of Archilochus.’ 
So Basil, in the sentence immediately preceding the one quoted 
above, uses this metaphor of the fox of Archilochus repeating 
even the words of Plato, and again, shortly afterwards, in 588 B 4 
he gives the phrase ‘to trace out the sketch of virtue.’ For the 
identification of these phrases see p. 49. The passage under 
discussion then is simply a further reference to the same section 
of the Republic. 

Further on the subject of justice each author maintains that it 
is worse to do wrong than to suffer it, Bas. 3, 364 D 1 and Gorg. 
473 A. But he who does the evil is in danger of future punish- 
ment. Basil, 3, 580 C 14, urges us not to waste our time lest we 
be called to account od te mapa Tots avOpdrrois, AXN év Tois, el TE 
bro yhv, cite Kal Orrov On Tod TayTOS dvTA TUyXaveL SucaLwTnpLoLs, 
with which is to be compared Phaedr. 249 A: (atyruyat) xpileioat 
d€ ai pep eis TA UTTO YAS SikacwTHpia EXOodcat Sikny éexTivovaw. 

Basil seems to have borrowed verbatim Plato’s phrase Ta w7re 
yjs Sicarwtypia, and then to have thought it wise to add some 
modification in regard to the statement of the location of the 
dicacornpia. This parallelism is noted by Jahn, Neue Jahrb., 
Suppl. Band 13, 1847, p. 461. 

But those who are so deeply dyed in wickedness as to be 
themselves beyond the hope of cure must not be destroyed, but 
are to be left as examples to others. This thought is presented 
by Basil, 3, 340 C 9, in a way that is similar to that of the 
Gorgias, 525 C. In fact with variations in the line of phrase- 
ology and vocabulary excepted the passages are practically 
identical. The meaning and context are the same in each case 
and it seems certain that the first is an imitation of the second. 
See also Wyttenbach’s note on Plutarch’s de ser. nwn. vind. 
564 E. 

Finally, under this heading we may refer to a pair of state- 
ments on the duties of children to parents, Bas. 3, 912 B 6, and 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 21 


Legg. 717 B, in which there is not sufficient similarity to require 
any discussion. 


INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON BASIL IN PHILOSOPHY. 


The writings of St. Basil are divided into three groups by 
Bohringer, Die Kirche Christi und thre Zeugen, 2d ed., vi1, Die 
drei Kappadozier, p. 60. These divisions are, (1) the dogmati- 
eal works such as that against Eunomius and the Book on the 
Holy Spirit; (2) the Homilies; and (3) the Epistles. There is 
then no work that could be classed distinctively under the head of 
philosophy. So further Huber says, op. cit., p. 212, that we find 
no original ideas in Basil, for, although at Athens he studied 
philosophy as well as other branches, no lasting impression was 
made on him because shortly afterwards he devoted himself to 
theology and the study of the doctrines of the church. More- 
over, his life in the church is characterized by the activity of his 
work, which left him no time for philosophy. As Bohringer, 
loc. cit., says: Basil ist mehr ein Mann des Handelns und der 
That als der Wissenschaft, das praktische Element ist in ihm weit 
iiberwiegend. 

Under this caption, however, it seemed best to group various 
statements of Basil on voluntary and involuntary action, and to 
treat the question of the relation of his Hexaemeron to Plato’s 
discussion of the creation of the universe in the Timaeus. As 
Basil handles it the subject is rather theological than philosophi- 
eal, but it will be shown that in his attempt to harmonize 
philosophy and theology Basil has retained many of Plato’s 
philosophical theories. 

The subject of voluntary and involuntary action, which is 
another phase of the question of the freedom of the will, see 
p- 16, is mentioned or discussed in several places by Basil. In 
3, 404 A 12 he asserts that some sins are involuntary, others 
voluntary, and in 580 D 5 that for the involuntary wrong there 
may be pardon, but for the voluntary severe punishment is 
certain. Similarly Plato, Legg. 860 E, determines greater punish- 
ment for the voluntary than for the involuntary sin. Compare 


22 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


also Hipp. Min. 375 D. Basil further illustrates his statement 
in 404 B 1f. by a comparison of two prostitutes, one of whom is 
sold to a mropvoBockes and so is compelled to sin, while the 
second voluntarily gives herself up to that form of life. Then in 
404 B6 he declares that punishment varies as early training 
tended to virtue or vice. So in the Protagoras, 323 D ff., Plato 
maintains that no man is held responsible for what occurs by 
nature or by chance. 

But the most important passage on this subject in Basil is 
4, 676 A 11 ff. which shows some similarities to Legg. 865 f. 
Basil begins with the sentence 6 a&ivy mapa Tov Oupov Kata Tijs 
€avtod yapueThns xpnodpuevos goveds éo71, and further on, in 
676 C 2f., he takes up the discussion of homicide done under the 
impulse of anger and decides that if the instrument is a club or a 
stone it is involuntary, as there is a chance that the assailant 
intended only to injure and not to kill, but if a sword or axe is 
used the murder is voluntary. Plato devotes considerable space 
to this same question of homicide arising from passion, Legg. 
866 Ef. He describes two kinds of such homicide, one when the 
act is done in the moment of rage and is followed by immediate 
repentance, which is involuntary; and the other when the anger 
is restrained for the moment and the murder is the result of a 
premeditated plan of revenge, in which case the deed is voluntary. 
In 868 D, among the involuntary crimes which are to receive a 
comparatively light punishment, he mentions the following which 
recalls the opening sentence of Basil’s discussion, cited above, 
yuvaika 6€ yapueTny éav avnp Sv opynv Ktelvn Tia TIS, 7) yur?) 
éauTns avdpa. Basil also gives other illustrations of involuntary 
homicide, as, for example, when a stone is hurled at a dog and 
hits a man, when a man dies under blows administered in chastise- 
ment, etc., which are not the same as those given in the Laws, 
865 Af., but are similarly used. Finally then the treatment in 
the Laws is very elaborate, while that of Basil is quite brief, but 
the general similarity is worth noting. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 23 


RELATION OF PLATO’s TIMAEUS TO Basit’s HEXAEMERON. 


The nine homilies of Saint Basil on the Hexaemeron, a treatise 
on the creation of the world, constitute one of his most important 
pieces of work and one that received much praise from the 
Fathers. Gregory of Nazianzus says of this work:' ‘When I 
take up and consider his Hexaemeron I walk with the Creator 
and I learn to know the theory of creation, and I admire the 
Creator more than before when I used my sight alone as my 
instructor.’ The praise of Basil’s brother, Gregory of Nyssa, 
verges on the extravagant when he connects the name of Basil 
with that of Moses in regard to their descriptions of the creation. 
In his treatise on the Hexaemeron he writes to his brother Peter 
as follows :? ‘ You have directed me to present in order the theory 
of the creation of the universe elaborated by the great Moses with 
divine inspiration, and to point out how Holy Scripture is consist- 
ent with itself, and that too though you have before you the divinely 
inspired treatise of our Father (i. e. Basil), which all who know 
admire no less than the work of Moses himself, and rightly in my 
opinion.’ Gregory writes at considerable length in this eulo- 
gistic way and points out that Basil has completely elucidated 
by his reflections the difficult work on the creation of the world 
so that there is no one who can not easily understand it.’ 

This treatise of Basil was afterwards used freely and worked 
over by Ambrosius (d. 399 A. D.), and was translated into Latin 
by Eustathius. 

It is not necessary here to make any preliminary statement on 
the line of argument of Basil in the presentation of his views on 
the creation. In the main he takes his outline from Genesis and 
for much of his matter he is dependent on his training in the 
scriptures. But in part again he seems to be indebted to Aris- 
totle.* Weshall proceed at once to the question of his relation to 


1 Orat. 43, p. 585 A 9 (Migne). 

2P. 61, A 6 (Migne). 

3See Tillemont, Histoire Ecclesiastique, IX, p. 288. 
4See Miillenhoff, Hermes, II, 252 f. 


24 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


Plato and in this case from the nature of the subject chiefly the 
Timaeus of Plato. 

At the very beginning the statement of the subject even seems 
to recall the Timaeus. It is to be a treatise wept dicews (Bas. 1. 
8 A 1), as the subject of the Timaeus is also declared to be wept 
dvcews in Tim. 27 A where the company decide that Timaeus 
should be first speaker as he had taken the most pains to gain 
knowledge mept dicews tod tavtds. So it is very probable that 
Basil had Plato in mind when he said (loc. cit.), wodAa wept 
picews erpaymatevoavTo ot TOY “EXAjvev codoi, and the state- 
ment immediately following on the difficulty of the subject and the 
variety of views is clearly a reflection from the Timaeus. Basil 
says that among the wise men no theory remains immovable but 
one always displaces another, though there is no similarity in 
expression the same thought is found in Jim. 29 C. 

Now in beginning a treatise on the creation of the universe it 
must necessarily be assumed that the universe was not ever-exis- 
tent but at some time had to be brought into being. Basil then 
sounds this note of warning in 1.9 A 8: pa obv dvapya davtagov 
Ta op@peva, and this is also one of the first points of the Timaeus, 
given in 28 B, 6 kéopos yéyover, am’ apyiis Twos apEdpevos. 

On the other hand we are informed of that which is ever-exist- 
ent, without beginning and without end, Bas. 1.12 A10:... 
Oeov avapyov te Kal atedevTnTOv and Tim. 34 A: obros bn Tas 
GVTOS del AoLTHOS OHeod. 

If then the universe is a thing created there arises at once the 
question as to what was previous to the creation. Basil 1. 13 A 
4 says that there was a certain Katdotaoi mpeoButépa Tis Tod 
Koopov yeveoews, which was wrépypovos, aiwvia, aidvos. This 
view seems to be significant as showing the influence of philosophy 
in opposition to the statement of Genesis, év apy7 émolncev 0 Beds 
TOV ovpavoy Kal THY yhv, which offers no suggestion of any possibil- 
ity antecedent to the beginning. The Timaeus makes several 
statements on this point. First it gives the view of primaeval 
chaos and asserts that the chief reason for the creation of the uni- 
verse was the desire of God to bring order out of that chaos, in 30 
A, and then in 52 D is specified what was before the universe, dv 


‘ 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 25 


Te Kal yopav Kal yéveow eivat Tpia TpLYH Kal Tplv ovpavon yevér Oa. 
See also 48 B, 53 A and 69 B. 

Now proceeding with the development of the theory, before there 
can be any creation there must be a cause and this accordingly is also 
one of the early questions discussed. Basil, 1. 4 A 6, asserts that 
the creation of the heaven and earth did not take place automati- 
cally but there was a moving cause which was God, and then he 
adds: ‘what sense of hearing is worthy of the magnitude of these 
words, what soul prepared for the reception of such tidings.’ The 
necessity of a cause preceding is similarly stated in the Timaeus 
which also adds the suggestion of the immensity and greatness of 
that cause, which is the father God, Tim. 28 A and C. rov.. 
ToinTny Kal Tatépa TovdEe TOU TavTOS eEvpeiy TE Epyov Kat EvpdvTa 
els Travtas advvatov NéyeLV. 

After the statement that God is the cause of existence the im- 
portant point here is of course this remark on the nature of God, 
that He is difficult to find and when found can not be appreciated 
by all. This is clearly followed by Basil in the sentence quoted 
above, and in regard to its importance in general there is a note 
by Ackermann, op. cit., p. 40, n. 1: ‘No passage was so fre- 
quently cited by the church Fathers, now with praise and now 
with blame, according as they understood.’ 

From this the next step in the theory comes naturally in the 
expansion of the idea of God as creator of the universe. In bas. 
1.9 Al it is the highly-honored name of God, 7 paxapia vars, 
 apyn TOV dvtev etc., and this idea is expressed or inferred sey- 
eral times in the Timaeus and is summarized conveniently in 30 
B. It may deserve mention here in passing that of the attributes 
of God given in the list, which has partly been quoted in the pass- 
age of Basil just cited, one is 7) ap@ovos ayabdrns which may be a 
reminiscence from Jim. 29 E: aya6os iy (se. 6 Beds), ayabe dé 
ovdels Trept ovdevds ovdETrOTE eyyiyveTar POdvos. 

After the statement of the creation some characteristics are noted 
specifying the grade of the thing created. It was the product of 
the wisdom of God says Basil 1. 17 B 9, while the Timaeus 30 B 
asserts that it was formed dua tHv Tod Beod mpcvoray. Other state- 
ments of the perfection of the creation are Bas. 1. 17 C 8 and Tim. 


26 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


28 C,in which there is particularly noticeable the similarity in 
the two remarks on the relation of the creator to his work, each 
affirming the beauty of the creature as a consequence of the excel- 
lency of the creator. In this connection compare also as. 1. 13 
B 3 and Tim. 29 E. 

The next question that presents itself concerns the nature of the 
substance of the creation. Plato bases his theory absolutely on 
the Empedoclean doctrine of the four elements and the discussion 
of the matter in the Timaeus is clearly the source of Basil. In 
commenting on the thesis of Genesis that God created the heavens 
and the earth Basil, 1. 20 A 9 shows how the theory of the ele- 
ments lies implicit in this statement and is necessarily assumed. 
If the existence of the earth be granted the other elements, fire, 
water and air are easily found, for fire leaps from stone and iron 
which are of the earth, the well-diggers have proved the presence 
of water in the earth and finally the winds from the south are suffi- 
cient proof of the air. Thus it is apparent that Basil is trying to 
harmonize the statement of Genesis with the theory of the Timae- 
us, expressed in 31 B and 32 B, that the created body consisted 
first of fire and earth and that later between these constituents the 
god added water and air, binding all together into a whole. Basil 
then accepts the doctrine of the elements and insists that this doc- 
trine is inherent in the Old Testament teaching, for though earth 
alone is mentioned common sense only is needed to show that 
earth comprehends all the other elements and therefore the state- 
ment of the existence of earth is no less than the statement of the 
existence of the elements. 

As a proof of the importance that Basil attaches to this point 
he reverts to it again in 33 C 5 and selecting the element, water, 
for particular emphasis explains that, while nothing is said about 
God creating the water, we are told that the earth was invisible and 
therefore must assume that water as a veil covered the face of the 
earth. 

In still another passage of Basil the reference to the Timaeus is 
even more plain and the language is practically repeated, Bas. 1. 
25 A 14: kai of pwev ovvberov adrov (sc. Tov Kdopor) ex TeV 


/ / 2. . 
TeToapav oTOLYEloY ELlpnKacW, ws amTOV dvTa Kal opaTor, Kai 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 27 


peTexovTa yns pmev Ova THY avTiTUTriav, Tupos Sé dua TO KaDopac Pat, 
Tov dé Nowrrev dua THY piEw. Compare also Bas. 4. 248 D 2. 

Tim. 31 B: cwpatoedées dé 6% Kal opatov amv te det TO 
ryevomevoy eivar * yopicbev dé mrupds ovdév av TrOTE OpaToY YyEvoLTO, 
ovde amTov avev TLVOS OTEPEOV, TTEpEoY SE OVK avEU YAS. 

The similarity here is so obvious that it is hardly necessary to 
emphasize it. Both statements agree that the universe is visible 
and tangible, opatos «al dards, and both explain these terms in 
the identical manner but with different words, asserting that the 
visibility is due to fire, the tangibility to the hardness of the earth. 

Since thus the theory of the elements has been established the 
next step in advance is the notice of the harmony among these con- 
stituents, which is set forth in Bas, 1. 33 A 9 and Tim. 32 C, 
where there is a striking similarity in the repetition of the idea of 
the bond of friendship as that which yokes the elements together, 
a bond unbreakable, that can not be unloosed save by him that 
bound, Basil’s phrase, éXov 8€ Tov Kécpov avopoiomeph TUYXAaVOVTA 
appnkt@ Til pircas Sec pe eis wlav Kowoviav Kal 4ppoviay cvvedycer, 
corresponding to the following sentence of Plato: To Tod xéopou 
capa éyevviOn SC avadoyias, dirtav Te Exyev ex TOUT@V, WOT ELS 
tavTov avT@ EvvedOov advTov bTd Tov aAAov ANY vVTO TOD 
Evvdjcavtos yevéeoOa. Further at this same point in each work 
there is discussed the subject of the completeness of the creation, 
the complete employment of the elements, Bas. 1. 33 B 5 and 
Tim. 32 C. 

Finally before leaving the matter of the elements a question 
arises in regard to their relations to each other and the passage of 
one to another. This is mentioned by Basil, 1. 61 B 13 and elab- 
orated shortly afterwards in 89 C 4; it is discussed by Plato, Tim. 
49 C. The idea presented here of the close interrelation of the 
elements is the same in each case and in fact the passage of Basil 
might be viewed as a commentary on that of the Timaeus, giving 
a fuller explanation. Plato states that water when congealed 
becomes earth, Basil unites water and earth by the quality of cold- 
ness. Water melted, says Plato, passes into air, water and air are 
connected in Basil by the quality of moistness. Finally beside 
Plato’s statement that air when inflamed becomes fire, stands Basil’s 


28 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


union of fire and air in the quality of heat. Thus both sections 
are seen to be very similar and both are concluded by a similar 
sentence in summary, Basil’s cai obrw yiverat KiKros Kal Yopos 
évapydvios corresponding to KvKAov Te oTw SiadiddvTa els GXAyra 
Thy yéveow of the 'Timaeus. 

But in the course of transition as one element is dissolved into 
another, it loses its characteristic form and therefore is practically 
destroyed, Bas. 1. 64 C 14 and Tim. 56 D. 

Next in both authors the power of fire is emphasized as surpass- 
ing that of all the other elements, Bas. 1. 65 C 1 and Tim. 58 A; 
and further the nature of fire is characterized as a nature that is 
double, on the one hand being the flame that burns, on the other 
the flame that provides light to the eyes, Bas. 1. 121 C14; 297 
B 14. and Tim. 58 C. We also find parallel notes in regard to 
the condensation and precipitation of water in Bas. 1. 69 A 18 
and Tim. 49 C. 

From the substance of the universe, the elements, we pass to the 
nature and form of the universe which is the next point that is 
developed similarly in each work, Bas. 1. 38 A 2 and Tim. 32 D, 
where to be particularly noted is the emphasis that both authors 
lay on 70 apémov, which brings these two passages into close 
- relationship. Compare for example the phrase of Basil, ovpav@ 
bev abwpice THY OVpav@ TpéTroveay pvow with the words oxjpa 
dé éSwKxey av’T@ TO mpérov of the Timaeus. Basil thus declares 
that God determined for the heaven the nature that was proper 
for the heaven, and for the earth too its own proper nature, which 
is identical with the statement of Plato that God gave to the 
universe the form that was proper and natural. 

The expression is also notably similar in the following extracts, 
Bas. 1. 60 B12: ove... TodTo avaynn Kal tTHv €Ewbev éerripaverav 
opaipikas arnpticbar, Kal Orov axpiBas EvTopvoy eivar Kal relws 
TrEpLN'y MEVOV. 

Tim. 33 B: 610 kai oparpoedé&s, . . . KUKAOTEpEs AUTO éTOpvEevcaToO 
... Aelov O€ 69 KUKAw Trav éEwOEV adTO amnKkpLBodTO TroARXROY 
Yapuv. 

Of course the subject here discussed is the same in each case and 
in this sentence of his description Basil has apparently borrowed 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 29 


his vocabulary directly from Plato, while altering the phraseology 
and the forms of the words. So oga:puxds corresponds to 
opatpoedes, axptBas to amnxpiBodTo, évtopvor eivat to éropvevaaro, 
and evws mrepinyywévov to retov KvKA@. Add to this also the par- 
allel phrases for the ‘outer surface’, tv éoOev ériddveay and 
mav é€oev, and it is plain that the resemblances are too close to be 
accidental. 

In connection with the subject of the form of the universe there 
is considerable discussion relative to the question of the possibility 
of the existence of more than one ovpaves or xécpos. Plato is 
distinct and emphatic in his statement on the negative side, there 
is and there will ever be but one ovpaves for it comprehends all 
creatures and therefore could not be second to another, Tim. 31 A. 
Reference should also be made here again to Jim. 32 C where 
Plato states that all the elements are completely used in the forma- 
tion of the universe and therefore there can be but one universe, 
since nothing is left from which a second might be formed. Now 
it seems probable that Basil had in mind Plato and this presenta- 
tion of the subject in the Timaeus when he wrote in 1. 56 D 4 ff: 
‘They assume that there is a single ovpaves, the nature of which 
can not be double or triple or manifold, on the ground that all 
universe-matter has been expended on the one leaving nothing for 
a second or third.’ But Basil refuses to subscribe to this view and 
in support of his opposition cites the fact that learned men of the 
Hellenes are arrayed on either side. He therefore espouses that 
theory for which he finds scriptural warrant, 1. 57 B 9, referring 
to the third heaven of Paul, II Cor. 12. 2, and the heavens of 
heavens of the psalmist, Ps. 148. 4. 

An additional point in favor of the belief that in this treatment 
Basil has reference to the Timaeus is presented in the fact that 
immediately after the preceding statement Basil remarks that this 
theory of the numerous ovpavol is no more marvelous than is the 
theory of the seven orbits of the stars. Now this description of 
the arrangement of the stars, which will be considered later, 
follows in the Timaeus very shortly after the question of the single 
ovpaves is discussed and therefore the appositeness of this compar- 
ison by Basil is made apparent. 


30 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


Basil further does not fail to touch on the etymology of the 
word ovpaves which is mentioned several times in Plato, Bas. 1, 72 
B7; 180 C 2 and Tim. 32 B; Rpb. 509 D; Crat. 396 B, in all 
of which there is the same underlying thought of its derivation from 
the verb opaw. Compare Bas. 1, 180 C 2: odpavod évradda 
mapa TO opdcbar Tod aépos mpocepnuevov and Crat. 396 B: 
ovpavia, opaca Ta ave. 

The Timaeus however does not discuss odpaves in the sense in 
which it is often used by Basil, that is the heaven of Genesis as 
contrasted with the earth. In Plato it is primarily the universe 
and therefore Basil resorts to the Old Testament for his description 
of the nature and form of the vault of heaven, referring in 1. 20 C 
14 to the verses of Isaiah, 51. 6 for its nature and 40. 22 for its 
form. 

But the earth receives attention in both works particularly in 
regard to the question of its immobility or rotation. There has 
been much discussion of the passage of the Timaeus, 40 B, bearing 
on this point, yjv... eiANouévny S€é Trepl Tov dia TavTos Todov 
TeTapevov ... €unxavnoato, The difficulty lies in the considera- 
tion of efAXowevnv and whether this word should be interpreted as 
conveying the idea of rest or motion. But Boeckh, Stallbaum, 
Jowett and others, in spite of opposition principally on the part of 
Grote, stoutly maintain their belief that Plato here had no inten- 
tion of asserting the theory of the rotation of the earth. In a pas- 
sage in the Phaedo indeed he clearly states its immobility, 108 E : 
el ) YH cot ev péow TO Opava Trepideprs ovca, wndév avTn Seiv 
pnt aépos mpos TO m1 Tecely nT aArAANS avayKnS pNndEemLas 
ToLavTNS, .. . LadppoTrov yap Tmpayua opotov Tivos ev wéow TeOev 
ovy &£er parrov ovd’ HTTov ovdapdce KrALOHVAaL, Oomoiws 8 Exov 
GKALVES [MeEVEL. 

The statements of Basil differ little from those of Plato, see 1. 
24 A 12 and particularly B 10 ff. where Basil seems to have 
some particular treatment in mind for he says that certain of the 
dvotxoi declare the earth to be immovable on the following 
grounds, which are quite the same as those given in the Phaedo, 
@s dpa dia TO THY peony TOU TavTOS ElAnpéva Yopav, Kal dia 
Ti lonv tavTobev pds TO akpoy amdcTacW, ovK ExovoaY OTroU 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 31 


H@XXov atroKNOn, avayKaiws pévev ed Eéavtis. Attention is 
especially directed to the relation to each other of the final phrase 
in each quotation, but the similarity is marked throughout. The 
idea expressed, that motion of the earth is impossible because it 
would destroy the condition of the equipoise and equality in space, 
is practically the same although the form of expression is somewhat 
different, except that Plato’s phrase ovy Ee wadrXov odd’ HrTov 
ovdapmoce KXLOHVvaL has been followed by Basil almost verbatim in 
his ov« €yovoav Srrov wadrov aTroKdLOn. 

Thus the immobility of the earth is declared, but that the 
universe as a whole has a circular movement is the assertion of 
Bas. 1. 9 A 9 and Tim. 34 B. 

The next point that comes up for consideration is the question 
of the beginning of time and the distinction between day and 
night as presented by bas. 1.13 B7 and Tim. 37 E. Each of 
these passages consists of two sentences which are respectively 
similar, the first sentence in each case stating that time was not 
existent before the creation of the universe but began instantly with 
the universe, while the second sentence describes time as that 
which is divisible into the past, the present and the future. The 
general thought and arrangement are the same, the details of 
vocabulary and phraseology are quite different. Perhaps Basil 
again has in mind this passage of the Timaeus when he says 
emphatically in 1. 560 B 8 that a child would know that the 
days, months and years were pétpa Tod ypovov, ovyi uwépn, where- 
as the Timaeus in the passage cited calls them pépn ypovov. 

Further resemblances of expression are found in other state- 
ments on this subject, particularly Bas. 1. 121 B 5 and Tim. 39 
B, where there is a similar expression of the idea that God kindled 
the sun and made it of sufficient brightness to shine on the whole 
universe. To be also compared with this same passage of the 
Timaeus and the Locrian summary 97 B, are Bas. 1. 16 B 3, 48 
B 11, and 49 B 12. 

Immediately subsequent to the question of the division of night 
and day comes the theory regarding the arrangement of month 
and year, in the statement of which there is a general resemblance 
to be noted between Bas. 1. 137 B 7 and Tim. 39 B. 


32 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


Further in connection with this same subject of time comes the 
discussion of the stars and their orbits. Basil is clearly quoting 
some authority for he says 1. 57 B 13, that it is granted by all 
that seven stars are borne in the seven orbits, which they say are 
in harmony one with another. It seems probable that Basil has 
reference to the elaborate presentation of this matter in the Timaeus 
36 C. The fundamental points are the same, but Basil’s treat- 
ment is much simpler than that of Plato, and his statements might 
easily be deduced from the Timaeus. Moreover, it has been 
shown on p. 29 above, that Basil may have introduced this matter 
in order to support his theory of the ovpavoé in opposition to Plato. 

Finally, in regard to the stars both works have notes on their 
wide distribution, Bas. 1. 141 A 6 and Tim. 40 A. 

From this consideration of the universe and its creation we now 
pass to a few parallel statements in regard to the creatures. First, 
concerning the ethical nature of the creature it is agreed by both 
authors that sin did not come from the creator, for evil by the 
law of opposites can not have its source in the good, Bas. 1. 37 C 4 
and Tim. 29 KE. But on the other hand, that sin is a growth 
within the man himself is asserted by Bas. 1. 37 D 1 and Tim. 
86 D. 

There is also some space devoted to the consideration of the 
subject of the sensations in the Timaeus, 61 D ff. Cold and heat 
are discussed in 61 D, the heavy and light in 62 C, the hard and 
soft in 62 C, taste in 65 C, color in 67 C, ete, and this treatment 
would be an admirable source for such a summarized note as that 
of Basil 1. 21 A 12, to the effect that if the world were deprived 
of the sensations of the black, the cold, the heavy, the thick, and 
of taste, nothing would remain. Compare here also Bas. 3. 216 C 
13, and Legg. 961 D. 

Further there are several notes on voice and hearing given by 
both authors, as Bas. 1.56 B12 and Tim. 47 B, but in form of 
expression and content the passages show very little similarity. 
There is however some parallelism in the treatment of the phenom- 
enon of color, as both declare that color, exists as far as our precep- 
tion is concerned only through the sight, Bas, 1. 81 A 1, and 
Tim. 67 C, 


The Influence of Pilato on Saint Basil. 33 


Again, Basil’s statement in regard to the formation of flesh 
seems to be repeated from Plato, Bas. 1. 168 A 4: aia 6€ mayer 
els cdpxa mébuxe petaBadrdrAgav. Tim. 82 C: kata piow yap 
odpKes mev Kai vetpa e& aipatos yiyveta, .. cdpKes 5€ aro TOU 
mayevtos, 5 mHyvuTa yoprlcuevov var. 

Now the Timaeus says very little about the creatures other than 
man but even the few statements made are found also in part in 
Basil. In regard to the beast, Bas. 1. 192 A 4 repeats in almost 
the same words the description given in 3. 216 C 4 ff. which is 
quoted above on p. 7. Both of these references then give the 
idea of the Platonic passages, Tim. 90 A and 91 E, that the 
degradation of beasts is shown in the fact that their heads are 
brought low and their looks are toward the earth. 

The fish also receive some attention in both works as Bas. 1. 
149 B5dand Tim. 92 A, where however the resemblance is limited 
to similar notes on their peculiar nature which allows breathing in 
water but not in air. And finally there are similar notes declaring 
that trees, plants, etc., were created to be food for men, Bas. 
1.96 C1 and Tim. 76 E, 77 C. 

In conclusion now it must be clear that in his treatment of the 
creation Basil has followed very closely the outline and reasoning 
of the Timaeus. From the very statement of the subject not only 
are the main doctrines of Plato repeated but even at times there 
appear notable parallelisms in expression which compel one to the 
belief that in the preparation of these sermons Saint Basil made 
free use of the Timaeus as one of his books of reference. 

This dependence is shown chiefly in the first four sermons 
which deal more particularly with the creation of the universe in 
contrast to the formation of the creatures. In these are found the 
parallel references which we have discussed, developing logically 
the theory of the creation from the matter preéxisting through a 
preceding cause to the fact of the creation, followed by the discus- 
sion of the nature of its substance and the theory of the elements. 
The nature and form of the universe are then considered, presently 
leading to the question of the divisions of time, and finally is 
stated the theory of the formation of the creatures. 

The last three homilies of Basil discuss respectively the creeping 


b4 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


things, the creatures of the air and creatures of the waters, the 
creatures of the land. Since it has been pointed out that the 
Timaeus devotes very slight attention to these subjects, it is not 
surprising that we find hardly a single Platonic parallel in this 
section. Basil was compelled to look to other sources and Millen- 
hoff has shown in Hermes, IJ, p. 252 f., that for these matters he 
has drawn largely on Aristotle. 

There is on the other hand one subject that occupies a large 
section of the Timaeus about which Basil has practically nothing 
to say. This is the subject of the formation of man, the presenta- 
tion of his characteristics and his attributes. It is evident that 
Basil did not intend to neglect this subject, for at the conclusion of 
the ninth homily, the last one in this series of which we have any 
knowledge, he says, 1. 208 A 13: In what then man has the 
characteristics of the image of God and how he partakes of His 
likeness will be told in the succeeding books by the grace of God.” 
That he wrote no more than nine homilies on the Hexaemeron is 
attested by the Fathers, for example Cassiodorus, de instit. divin. 
lit., I. And Socrates, IV, 267, affirms that the work of Basil was 
finished by his brother Gregory, who also in his turn asserts, 
de hom. opif., p. 125 C 1 (Migne), that the reason for his work on 
the formation of man was not to convict Basil of error because he 
had neglected this subject in his sermons on the creation, but 
rather to communicate to others the great light that he had re- 
ceived from him. He completed this work immediately after the 
death of Basil, see Tillemont, op. cit., IX, p. 289 f., and Vita 
Basilii of the Garnier ed.’ 

The sermons zrept tis Tov avOpwrov KatacKevijs, (2, p. 9, 
Migne), attributed by some to Basil, are considered by Tillemont, 
l. ¢., as the work of some ancient writer who possessed something 
of the style and genius of Basil, and who wrote merely for exercise 
and not to impose on others or to deceive the church. 

So we observe that without doubt it was the intention of Basil 


1 Migne, Patrolog. Lat., v. 70, p. 1110. 
2 Migne, Pat. Gr., v. 67, p. 536 A 2. 
* Reprinted in Migne, St, Bas., I Preface, Chap. XLI, p. clxiil. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 35 


to discuss also this subject which is so extensively treated in the 
Timaeus, but for some reason he was prevented from completing 
his plans. The main subject of the Timaeus then was not of pur- 
pose neglected and so the lack of the presentation of this matter in 
Basil can not be considered as a serious break in the parallelism 
between the two works. 

In his History of Classical Scholarship, p. 343, Sandys makes 
the statement that “Basil in his Hexaémeron imitates Philo 
Judaeus and in his turn is imitated by Ambrose.” Now, in so far 
as it would suggest that the degree of imitation is the same, this 
note is rather inaccurate, as will be briefly indicated. The depend- 
ence of Ambrose on Basil in this work is pointed out by all the 
editors. For example Migne, Pref. to Hex., Bas. 1. p. 1, says: 
‘‘No one, I fancy, who has read both works will deny that 
Ambrose in those sermons of his has performed the office of trans- 
lator and not that of originator. I grant to be sure that Ambrose 
added something of his own, and altered and transposed, but he 
did it as a free translator would.” Also in the preface to the 
homily on the Psalms, p. 210, he declares how “every one knows 
that Ambrose, when he wrote his books on the Hexaemeron, took 
many thing verbatim from Basil.” 

The second quotation is from the preface of the Ballerini edition 
of Ambrosius, (Med. 1875), where the author maintains that both 
Ambrose and Basil probably drew from the lost Hexaemeron of 
Origen, a deduction made from a statement of Hieronymus the 
accuracy of which can not be verified. This preface also cites the 
Maurini Patres as giving the opinion that while Ambrose took 
very much from Basil he did not borrow servilely nor in the manner 
of a translator, but frequently altered and sometimes severely criti- 
cised the earlier work. This seems on the whole a very fair 
statement of the matter, although it is obvious that on almost every 
page Ambrose does play the part of mere translator. A single 
reference showing the word for word borrowing mentioned above 
may be selected from many that are readily found, Ambros. 21 
and Bas. 20 C 14, where the imitation of Ambrose takes the 
form of a literal translation, and the closest parallelism to Basil is 
marked throughout the entire work, as is shown by Schenkl, ed. of 


36 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


St. Ambrose, Oorp. Scrip. Eccles. Lat., v. 32, 1897, who in his 
footnotes to the Exameron refers to Basil no less than 353 
times. 

Matters are quite different however when we come to the con- 
sideration of the relation of Basil to Philo. Siegfried, in his 
Philo von Alexandria, (Jena, 1875), devotes a chapter to the sub- 
ject of Philo’s influence on the Greek church Fathers but mentions 
Basil only once incidentally on page 369. Cohn, in the proleg. 
to the Cohn-Wendland ed. of Philo, p. LX f., discusses the authors 
who have borrowed from Philo, referring to Eusebius, Ambrosius 
and others, but not even suggesting the name of Basil. In his 
notes, however, to Philo’s de opificio mundi, he cites a single 
parallelism where the same phrase appears in both works, Philo, 
de op. mun. 149, and Bas. Hex. IV, p. 80 BI. Philo in his 
treatise draws freely from the Timaeus, in fact Philo is saturated 
with Plato as the ancients testify, 7 IAatov diroviva 7) Dirov 
mratewviter, a phrase which the later writers seem not to tire of 
repeating.’ Now, as Basil uses the same source it is natural to 
expect similarity in some cases, but the differences are more 
marked than the resemblances. So, for the sake of example, Basil 
following Plato, enlarges on the theory of the elements which is 
not discussed by Philo in this treatise. Philo again gives an 
elaborate treatment of the significations of various numbers, devot- 
ing fourteen chapters to the number 7, XX X—XLIII, a subject 
which is not mentioned by Basil. And further Basil does not 
enter into the question why man was created last, Philo, XX V— 
X XIX, ete. Also in some cases Basil’s statements seem to cor- 
rect those of Philo, as where Philo remarks, ch. XXIV and 
X XIX, that the earth was called invisible because it was a model 
perceptible only by the intellect, and incorporeal; but Basil, 29 
B 8, says that it was invisible either because there was no man to 
see it or because it was covered by water. 

Although these instances might be multiplied almost indefi- 
nitely, enough has been presented perhaps to prove that while Basil 
was without doubt acquainted with Philo, his reference in Epis. 


‘See Testimonia de Philone in Proleg. of Cohn-Wendland ed. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 37 


190! attesting that, his Hexaemeron can by no means be called 
an imitation in the sense that Ambrose is an imitator of Basil. 
Basil plainly went back to the source of Philo and abstracted 
material for his sermons at first hand. 


INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON Basin IN LANGUAGE. 


This chapter will treat of those notable similarities in expres- 
sion which point to a direct borrowing from Plato. Much allow- 
ance has been made for commonplace words and for such combina- 
tions in expression as might suggest themselves to any writer. 
The attempt will be made to present here only those phrases that 
show by use of a particular word or an unusual combination signs 
of immediate Platonic influence. 


Direct Quotation. 


The first section of this chapter will deal with those cases in 
which Basil quotes Plato directly or makes reference to him by 
name. 

Bas. 3.576 A 9: obtés éotw 0 éxxatos THs adixias Opos, & 
tt de¢ Tdatwou reiOec Oat, To Soxeiv Sixarov elvar pn ovTa. 

Rpb. 361 A: éoxatn yap adicia Soxeiv Sixacov eivas pi dvra. 

This same idea is also expressed in Gorg. 527 B. 

The second reference is Bas. 3. 584 B3: tocodtov avOextéov 
avtov daov, dyno Ihdtwv, trnpeciay pirocodia KTwpévov. 

Rpb. 498 B: trav copdtov... ed para éripeneio Oar, vnpeo (av 
pirocopia KkTwpevovs. 

These two quotations are from the oration to youths on the 
study of Greek and both are surrounded by quotations and remi- 
niscences from Plato. Indeed it is not easy to understand why 
in these places Plato is mentioned by name while further on in 
the same work, p. 585 D 5 (cited on page 49), another extract is 
taken verbatim from the Republic but no mention is made of 


1 Migne 4. 700 C 1. cited by Cohn, proleg. CIV, 


38 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


Plato and no hint is given that a quotation is being presented. 
This manner of giving a quotation, however, or presenting a 
reminiscence without indicating the source, is quite characteristic 
of Basil, and France, op. cit., p. 71, points out that this is also 
the rule in Julian. 

The third and last direct quotation from Plato is found in 
Basil’s Epistles, 4.236 A 3: xal ris rept Adyous ozrovdis ovdEer 
upierat * AANA 76 TOD [IAaTwvos, ev yew@vu Kal Cady TpayuaTor, 
olov vio Telyer Tl KpaTEep@ aTroaTas, ovdevds OopvBov THY :uyny 
avaTripirracat. 

Rpb. 496 D: rabta ravta Aoyicp@ AaBov jovylav éyov Kal 
Ta avTov mpdtTwv, oiov év yew KovopTod Kal CaArns v7r0 
mvevpaTos pepomevov wv7ro Tevyiov amooTds, opw@y Tovs dAXoUS 
KATATLULTAALEVOUS avomlas ayaTa. 

This is a good example of the way in which Basil borrows from 
Plato, not giving the passage exactly, but as if quoting from 
memory he interweaves his own words with those of Plato. In 
the other cases then when the name of Plato is not mentioned we 
should not require an absolute identity of phraseology before 
accepting a passage as a quotation or reminiscence. 

Now these three are the only direct assigned quotations from 
Plato in the 1543 pages of Basil (Migne). This is a remarkably 
small proportion compared with the practice of the other Fathers, 
Justin Martyr for instance shows 37 direct quotations in 286 Migne 
pages; Julian, Basil’s contemporary, gives 51 in 612 Teubner 
pages,’ and with very few exceptions the Fathers all cite Plato 
frequently. 

In addition to these direct quotations Plato is referred to by 
name several times in Basil. Once in the same homily on educa- 
tion, 3. 584 C 7, reference is made to Plato’s selection of an 
unhealthy spot for the Academy in order to mortify the flesh. 
Then in the Epistles there are two passages that have to do with 
the style of Plato, 4. 1092 C10: tatrtnv éyer thy onpaciav 7 
reEs, nv ex Tov IIdatwvos ad’tav 4 codictiKn cov Hiv tTpo- 
exeipicato, and most important of all as definitely stating Basil’s 


1See Schwarz, Philol. 51, 1892, p. 642 f. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 39 


admiration for Plato is a section from 4. 572 C 8, where he says 
that Aristotle and Theophrastus when they had something to dis- 
cuss went straight at the subject matter, as they were aware how 
far they fell short of the grace of Plato. “ But Plato through the 
power of his language both discussed philosophy and at the same 
time satirized his characters as in comedy, attacking the boldness 
and impudence of Thrasymachus, the fickleness and vanity of 
Hippias, and the boastfulness and pompousness of Protagoras.”’ 
Basil continues with a reference to the arrangement in the Laws, 
and so, besides attesting his high regard for Plato, this passage 
shows too his thorough knowledge of Plato’s works and from this 
point of view its importance can not be too much emphasized. 


Comparison and Metaphor. 


Saint Basil, like all writers of sermons, continually has need of 
illustrations to clarify, explain and enlarge topics presented and 
therefore his works abound in comparison and metaphor. There 
is hardly a page but can show more than one, and many phases 
of life and varied spheres of knowledge are drawn upon for 
their composition. It is beyond question that Basil must have 
taken many of these from the classical works that he read, from 
Plato as well as from others, but there is no doubt also that many 
were suggested to him from his own knowledge and experience of 
life. The line of demarcation is often impossible to draw. | For 
instance in the case of the figures bearing on the subject of physi- 
cians or medicine which Basil uses so frequently, it is impossible 
to imagine that he has in mind Plato’s numerous figures on the 
same subject. They are commonplace figures that would occur to 
any writer in any language. But often the use of a word or 
phrase, or the similarity of context enables us to assert with con- 
siderable certainty an instance of borrowing, and this is the method 
that we shall aim to pursue in the examples to be presented in 
this section. 

In the small number of examples no classification has been pos- 
sible and they will be cited as a rule in the order in which they 
occur in the works of Basil. 


40 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


Bas. 1.116 D1: o> yap of otpdBiror ex TAS TpwTNS adTois 
évdobelans mArnyhs tas ébeEAs movodvTar mepiotpopas, Stay 
anéavtes TO KeVTpOV ev EavTOIs TrEpLpepwvTaL. 

Rpb. 436 D: as of ye orpdBiror bdou éotaoi Te apa Kal 
Kwobvtat, bray ev TO avTo THEaVTES TO KEVTPOY TrEpLpEepwvTat. 

The context in these two passages is quite different. Basil uses 
the comparison of the top to illustrate the statement that every- 
thing in nature suceeeds in order from the first beginning, while 
Socrates suggests his comparison in support of the thesis that the 
same thing can stand still and be in motion at the same time. In 
each quotation the clause immediately following the word 
oTpoGvror infers the purpose of the comparison. 

The word otpoBiros in the meaning ‘top’ is very rare. In 
addition to these examples in the Republic and Basil but one 
other is cited in the Thesaurus, Plutarch Lysand. 12, where the 
use is quite different. Aristophanes uses the word Béufié, Aves 
1461; Homer gives o7popuPos, Il. 14. 413, as does Lucian also, 
As. 42: matovow abpca TH xeipi, Gate pe bro THS TANYNS GoTrEp 
otpouBov éEarrivns otpépec@ar. While the word for ‘top’ in any 
form is not one that we should expect to find very often in the 
literature, the fact that Basil uses the same word as Plato is signifi- 
cant. Moreover the word otpépec@at as used by Lucian seems 
very much more natural in connection with tops than zrepupéper Oa, 
and the use of the latter by Basil is an additional sign that the 
phrase is borrowed. But the last clause beyond any question of 
doubt puts the Platonic stamp on Basil’s phrase. In the words 
étav mytavtes TO KévTpov év éavTois mepipépwvTar Basil has 
repeated with really no change the language of Plato. 

The next references use for comparison the brightness of the 
sun, of which Basil says, 1. 516 A 14,... davotatov eivar trav 
Kat ovpavoy aotépwy Tov HALov, which has its parallel in Theaet. 
208 D, jru0s, .. . OTe TO AaprpeTaTov éoTt TOV KATA TOV OvpavoY 
idvtwy Tept ynv. Basil employs the comparison of that which is 
perfectly plain and obvious to all, while in the Theaetetus it is 
introduced as an illustration of a kind of definition that defines by 
giving a peculiar characteristic of an object which distinguishes it 
from all others. The description of the sun however is so similar 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 41 


in each case as to suggest the possibility of the phrase being bor- 
rowed. 

Bas. 3.164B1: ovdels abvpdv ctepavodtar: ovdeis oTuyvafov 
Tpomaiov tatnot. Compare also 440 B 8. 

Critias 108 C: adda yap aOvpodvtes avdpes ovTw TpoTaLoV 
éotnoav. 

This is a proverbial expression cited in Leutsch and Schneide- 
win, Paroem. Gr. I 382 as given by Suidas from the Critias. 
Basil is plainly repeating the identical phrase, and though it is 
possible that the proverb may have been well-known, from the 
fact that it is not cited elsewhere for the literature in this exact 
form, it would seem probable that Basil is consciously borrowing 
from Plato. 

Basil refers several times to the legend of the punishment of 
the Danaids, in 3. 184 A 2 and again in 545 C 2, and finally in 
581 A 13: tav é& “Adou Korafouevav ovdév mdoxovTes 
QVEKTOTEPOV, ATEXVAS eis TIP EaivorTes, Kal KooKiv@ PépovTes Vdwp 
Kal eis TETPHMEVOY aVTAOUVTES TOOL. 

Gorg. 493 B: trav év “Avdov... odto. aOw@TaTOL ay Elev OF 
apmvnTol, Kai hopotey eis TOV TeTpnuEVOY TriPov Bdwp éEtépw TOLOUTH 
TeTpnueva Kookiv@. Cp. also Rpb. 363 D. 

From these repetitions it would seem that Basil was much 
impressed by this story of the fate of the daughters of Danaus. 
With his third reference beside the quotation from the Gorgias 
the parallelisms in language indicate beyond doubt his indebted- 
ness to Plato. Both, it is to be observed, first refer to the severity 
of the punishment, after which they mention the carrying of the 
water in a sieve and the cask with holes that is to receive it. There 
are many references to this legend in the literature but in all the 
phraseology is quite different. One that is most similar may be 
cited for the purpose of comparison, Lucian, Tim. 18: @ote és 
tov tav Aavaidwv ridov idpodopnoev por dSoxo Kal patny 
érravtAncev, but here the mention of the daughters by name and 
the omission of the circumstances of the sieve and of the descrip- 
tion of the jar as terpnuévos present an independent phrase that 
could not be .associated with that of Plato. On the other hand 


42 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


the language and arrangement of Basil are so similar as to forbid 
the thought that the resemblance is the result of chance. 


Bas. 3. 212 B12: tov dvtov rip dicw Rroyiou@ Kabopas. 
copias Opémn Kaptrov no.oTov. 

Ib. 472 AT: ef 8€ Tis yera, BrCrov tHv wept Tas cuAdNaBas 
Huov adorecyiav, avTos pev loTw avodedh KapTrov Tod yéAwTOS 
dpemropevos. 

Rpb. 457 B: 6 8€ yerov avip emt yupvais yuvaki Tod 
Bedrictou eveca yupvalopevas atedrn Tov yerolov [codias | dpérav 
KapTrov ovdev oider. 

Stobaeus, Flor. III, p. 103 (Teub.), cites the phrase atedy 
copias Kaprrov dpérev as a quotation from Pindar, and it is given 
by Boeckh in Frag. 227, and among the Pindaric azropOéypara 
with the note, eoque alludit Plato Rep. p. 457 B ubi delendum 
esse cgodiéas scite notat Schneiderus.’ Adam, in his Edition of 
the Republic, note ad locwm follows Schneider in regarding codias 
in this passage as a gloss and excluding it from the text. He 
points out that Pindar refers to the copia of the physiologists as 
atedys, i. e. no real copia at all. More suo Plato adapts the 
Pindaric fragment to his own purpose. He attacks comedy and 
replaces Pindar’s cogiéas by the words Tod yeXofov. The humour 
of his adversary is ateAés—no real humour at all.’ See also 
Adam, Rpb. appendix III to book V. 

Basil shows in the first passage quoted that he knows the origi- 
nal form of the sentence, but later when he comes to adapt it we 
find it changed even as Plato changed it. Indeed, the use of the 
phrase in the second passage cited is identical with that of Plato 
except that the humor of the mocker is avwperés. The parallel- 
ism of the two passages is perfect and the phraseology of Basil, 
that is the omission of codéas and the substitution of Tod yéA@wTos 
therefor, supports the reading and interpretation of Adam for the 
reference in the Republic and helps to confute the view of Stall- 
baum that the Tod yedo/ov is the gloss that crept into the text. 


Bas. 3. 220 D 5: of ph edixvovpmevor THs peyadovolas Tod 


‘This view, however, retracted by 8. in ed. Plat. note ad loc. ( Leip. 1831). 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 43 


vouwobérov, mept ynv Kal capKas, ws mepl TéApa oKoANKES, 
iAvomr@pevot ev TOs TOU c@pmaTos maG_ect. 

Phaed. 109 B: ‘pas .. @omep rept TédAua pmvpunKas 7) 
Batpaxovs mrept THY OddNaTTav olKodYTAaS. 

This passage of the Phaedo is the sole place cited in the litera- 
ture where this comparison is found. The thought and expression 
in Basil are very similar. What differences there are seem to 
strengthen the view that Basil is borrowing. In fact this sentence 
when placed beside that of the Phaedo shows rather a crude con- 
nection between assertion and comparison which makes the com- 
parison appear not entirely natural. In Plato the antithetical 
relations are obvious. We in our insignificance live round the 
sea, the Mediterranean, as ants and frogs round a marsh. This 
permits also a proportionate arrangement, as we are in proportion 
to the ants or frogs so is the sea toa marsh. The quotation from 
Basil compares passionate men crawling round the earth to worms 
crawling round a marsh. ‘The relations plainly are not as fit as 
is the case in the Platonic passage. It is easy to assume that 
Basil has worked over a borrowed phrase to suit the exigencies of 
a slightly different connection. The changes are not difficult. 
Basil was an inlander preaching to inlanders, the phrase zrept tiv 
O@adratTav was too restricted, hence the wept ynv. The verb must 
then of necessity be altered and ¢Avomao@at was selected perhaps 
to increase the obloquy. ox@Ané is the crawling creature requir- 
ed by the new verb, and ox@An€é is not a far call from pvpyné. 

While this analysis may be rather fanciful, for the general 
reasons stated it seems not unjustifiable to count the phrase of 
Basil as an echo of the comparison of the Phaedo. 

Next there are a number of comparisons which have to do with 
the eyes, among which particularly to be noted are Bas. 4. 128 A 
2 and Rpb. 516 A which show the greatest resemblances. Here 
the first clause of Basil corresponds to the first clause of the pass- 
age from the Republic, each stating that eyes accustomed to dark- 
ness when brought suddenly to the light are blinded and can not 
see actualities. Therefore, to note the parallelism in the second 
clauses, they must look first at the shadows of objects, then at 
the reflections in water, and finally at the objects themselves. 


44 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


Both this citation and Bas. 3. 236 B 3 clearly suggest that Basil 
is drawing from the famous cave simile of the Republic. 

Basil frequently makes use of the figure of the steersman in 
comparison and metaphor, as in 3. 256 C 12, and 421 C 1, which 
particularly show Platonic influence when placed beside Republic 
488 C, and D. The first passage in each case refers to the steers- 
man’s neglect of his duties and the second details some of those 
duties. Both of the sections of Plato are from the famous com- 
parison at the beginning of the sixth book of the Republic, to 
which as Jowett points out, in note to 488 A, Plato returns as to 
a familiar image in Polit. 297 E. In this latter place it is to be 
noted that Plato couples in his comparison the steersman and the 
physician, Tov yevvaiov KuBepyyntny Kai Tov... tatpov... So it 
may be an additional sign of reminiscence from Plato when Basil 
in the first passage cited, 3. 256 C 10, says, ovre yap tatpov 
eTaw@, ... ovTe KUBepynTny .. . 

We next come to a pair of comparisons which centre round the 
dog. The first one, which is used in Bas. 3. 365 C 1 and Rpd. 
375 KE, has already been discussed on p. 14. This comparison 
introduces the dog mild to its friend and fierce toward its foe in 
each case as an illustration of the benefit of anger under certain 
circumstances. Plato’s statement is, dwayov Te Kat avixntov Oupds, 
Ib. B, and therefore it should be an attribute of the character of 
the @vAaé. Basil, Jb. B. 3, compares proper anger to the soldier 
who bears aid always at the necessary points, and then summing 
up with the words wadiota ypnotpos o Oupos he introduces the 
comparison of the dog. This similarity of the setting, added to 
the resemblances of expression indicated before on the page cited, 
is strong proof that this section of the Republic has here been 
Basil’s model. 

The dog again figures in Bas. 3. 369 A 1: Kat roves 70 TeV 
Kuva@v, ob Tos Aiovs Saxvovet, TOD BadXovTos ov TpocaTTOpMEVoL. 

Rpb. 469 D: otec te Stddopoyv Spav trols tovTo TrowodvTas TOV 
Kuvav, at Tos Nas ois av BAHOGot YareTralvovat, TOU BaddovTOS 
ovy amrTomeva ; 

This is another example where a comparison has been borrowed 
by Basil and poorly fitted to his context. The comparison itself 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 45 


in each case is obviously identical. Plato compares those who 
rob the corpses of their enemies to dogs who attack the stones with 
which they are struck instead of those throwing the stones. The 
comparison is perfectly fit, the dead thing is assaulted after its 
power has gone from it. Basil, however, makes use of the com- 
parison to illustrate the folly of getting angry at a different person 
from him who has provoked you. The whole point of the 
comparison is thus lost, all that remains being the fact that 
the anger is directed toward the wrong object. 

The form Sdaddovtos in this passage of the Republic is the 
reading of Adam, who selects it in opposition to the second aorist, 
Baxevtos, of the other editors, because the latter is found in one 
Ms. only (A), because Aristotle uses BaddXovTos and not Badovtos 
when he quotes the sentence in Rhet. 3. 4 as a typical example of 
simile, and because the “present is more picturesque and true to 
nature.” We observe then that the form of the expression in 
Basil again supports the reading and interpretation of Adam in 
refutation of the commonly accepted view. 

There are several references in Basil which illustrate the thesis 
that the inborn evil in each thing destroys it, so in 3. 373 A 1 
envy destroys the soul as rust does iron, and shortly afterward in 
380 A 13 it is declared that envy is the disease of friendship as 
mildew is of wheat. This again is repeated in 4. 1005 C 38, 
@otrep 9 épvciBn Tov aitou éoTl POopa ev avT@ yivomevyn TO oiTo, 
oUT@ Kal 7 KOAaKEla THY Piriav VTrodvomevn, AUN éoTl THS dirLas. 

All of these are to be considered in connection with Rpb. 
608 E where Plato states that each thing has its own proper 
disease as oitw épuvciBnv, onmeddva te EvrAOS, yark@ 5é Kal 
ovdnp@ tov. 

The first two passages of Basil occurring one immediately after 
the other in the same general sense with each other and with the 
Platonic usage, suggest that Basil must have had the phraseology 
of this reference of the Republic vividly in mind when he wrote 
this homily, and thought this sentence of Plato capable of being 
split so as to provide him not with one only but with two com- 
parisons. The third quotation from Basil again shows the simile 
% épuvciBn tov oitov. Now this simile is not so common in the 


46 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


language that we should expect it to appear in Basil even thus 
much. The Thesaurus, s. v. épuciBn, gives but one reference to 
where it is found, the passage of the Republic cited above. In 
addition to this the similar connection in thought helps to convince 
us that Basil is using a borrowed phrase. Plato states that every- 
thing has its natural disease, wheat has mildew, iron has rust, ete. 
Similarly in Basil envy is the proper disease of friendship as 
mildew is of wheat, and again even as mildew of wheat so fawn- 
ing is the disease, destruction of friendship. 

There are several comparisons now that have to do with the 
ship and the sea. Bas. 3.421 B13: @o7ep Tt rAotov avepwatia Tov 
bro TOV adel TpoomimTevTwY Tepipepouevos. Compare also Jb. 
577 C 8. 

Theaet. 144 A: kat arrovtes pépovtar BoTrep TA aveppatiota 
Told. 

In addition to the identity of phrase in the reference from 
Basil and that from the Theaetetus there is also a marked simi- 
larity of context. Both employ the comparison as an illustration 
of those who are under the influence of passion. Basil, immedi- 
ately preceding the quotation given above, exhorts his hearer not 
to permit the storm of wrath to overthrow him, and the comparison 
in Plato is made directly with those clever men of retentive memory 
who for the most part are prone to anger. ‘This then seems to be 
another example of a borrowed simile. . 

In the same sphere of the sea may be cited Bas. 3. 436 A 8: 
nOOV)) ayKLaTpOV eoTe TOV diaBOXov. 

Ib. 964 B 5: Hdo0vn yap éote TO wéya TOU KaKxod dédeap. 

Tim. 69 D: ... ndovnv, wéytotov Kaxod dédeap. 

The first of these fish metaphors, where pleasure is the hook, 
suggests that Basil here may have had the Platonic statement in 
mind. The second reference from Basil is merely a repetition 
of the phrase of the Timaeus, which is the only example of this 
metaphor cited in the Thesaurus. As is pointed out in the com- 
mentaries Plato is praised for it by Cicero, Cato Maz. 13, divine 
enim Plato escam malorum appellat voluptatem, quod ea videlicet 
homines capiantur ut pisces. 

We return again to the thought of the boat and note that Basil 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 47 


in 3. 565 A 14 urges us not to be led of others @o7ep mrolov Ta 
mnoadia THS Siavoias vuav tapadeytas, beside which is to be 
mentioned Clit. 408 A: ... dovAm adpevov 7) érevOdpw Sidyew TO 
TotovT@ Tov Biov éotlv apa, KaOdrrep TrOiov TrapadovTL TA THdaLA 
THS Suavoias ado. 

But two occurrences of this simile are cited, the reference given 
from Plato and the same phrase borrowed by Themistius, Orat. 
321 B, who quotes the entire sentence from the Clitopho beginning 
with the word dovA@. Though Basil has abstracted in phraseology 
no more than the simile itself, the connection is similar in that it 
is used as an illustration of one who is under the guidance of 
another. The resemblance in the context then, the identity 
of phrase, and if that is not sufficient the repetition of the figura- 
tive use of wndaNa, all combine to afford unquestionable proof of 
the relationship of the two passages. 

We pass now to an elaborate simile of dyers and dyeing which 
is introduced in each case for the purpose of illustrating the 
importance of preliminary education, Bas. 3. 568 A 9 ff. and 
Rpb. 429 Df. Basil declares in exhorting the Christian youths 
that all that we do is in preparation for the future life and this 
end we must prosecute with might and main. ‘The scriptures are 
our guide thither but often we are unable to understand them on 
account of immaturity, and therefore we must acquire preliminary 
training by study of the poets, historians and orators, just as 
dyers prepare the cloth before they dye. 

The context of the Republic here is concerned with the dis- 
cussion of courage which Plato defines as the salvation of the 
opinion concerning the things to be feared and their character, 
begotten by law through education. As therefore cloth must be 
prepared to take a good dye, so the soldier to attain to courage 
must receive a thorough preliminary education. 

In form of expression the simile itself in each case is practically 
the same if allowance is made for a certain interchange of words, 
which makes it appear indeed as if Basil were deliberately alter- 
ing a borrowed passage to make it more his own. So Basil says, 
of Sevoorrowot TrapacKevdcavtes Tpdtepov Oeparreiars Tic, 6 TH 
wor av 4 TO SeEdpevoy THY Badjv, oUTw Td dvOos émdyovow, beside 


48 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


the Platonic phrase, of Badeis . .. . mpotapackevafovow ... . 
Ocparrevoavtes, Oras SéEerar 6 Tt padtota TO avOos, Kal odTw dH 
Bdmrovot. Sevooroiws in the meaning of Badgeds is cited by 
Suidas and Hesychius, but no example of such use from the 
literature is given in the lexicons. Bliimner, Tech. u. Term. 1. 
217, 6, says: “das eigentlich yon der Farbe gebrauchte Wort 
Sevoorro.es findet sich fir Farber gebraucht.” In support of this 
statement he cites only three lexical notes, from Moeris, Suidas 
and Harpocration’s lexicon of the Attic Orators. Harpocration’s 
note does not seem to bear on the point, however, and the others 
simply mention the fact. Plato in this passage cited above uses 
the word twice, first in 429 E 1 with the meaning ‘ deeply-dyed’ 
and hence ‘indelible ;’ but on its second appearance the word 
shows a metaphorical use of this meaning in 430 A 4, devaozrocos 
avtav 4 dSd€a yiyvorto Kat rept Senvav Kali Tept THY addy, which 
has its parallel in the similar metaphorical use by Basil of 
avéxTrvtos in the clause (loc. cit.), wéArer avexTrUTOS MV .... 
4) TOU Kadod Trapapmevew SdEa, avéKxmdvTOS too is simply the nega- 
tive of the Platonic é«7rAuTos in 429 E 6. 

It is almost unnecessary to add a note on the identity of Basil’s 
mapackevacavtes Tpotepov Oeparreias ticiv with the Platonic 
mpotrapackevatovow Oeparetoavtes, of déEecOar thv Badyy with 
SéEecOai To dvO0s. Plato also says d€€ecOar @orrep Badny in 430 
A 3. Attention is finally called to the interchange in Basil’s 
Séecbar THY Badny, otTw TO avOos érrayovow and Plato’s déEecGar 
To avOos, Kal oT@ 67 Bamrovot. 

From these various considerations then, from the similarity in 
form and expression of the comparisons and from their similar 
relations to their respective contexts it seems without doubt that 
this is another instance where Basil has drawn extensively from 
Plato. A. Jahn, Newe Jahrb. 49, p. 397, agrees to this identifi- 
cation and mentions several editors who accept and make comment 
on it. 


Bas. 3. 581 C13: py dia tdv dtov SvePOapperny perwdiav 
TOV UKaV KATAXELDV. 

Rpb. 411 A: katayeiv ths Wwoyis bia tov atov, dorep bia 
XOVNS, ... TAS appovias. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 49 


Hiller in the Neue Jahrb. 109, p. 174, maintains that this 
passage of Plato and particularly the comparison of the ears to a 
funnel must have had a common source with Aristoph., Thesm. 
18, axon S€ yoavnv Sta Ssuetetpyvato. This source he suggests 
was an early philosopher, and consequently the phrase in Plato is 
a simple reminiscence. Now, although Basil does not mention 
the funnel the rest of the clause is so similar as to convince us 
that in its turn this is a reminiscence from Plato. In fact there 
can be little doubt about the identification since Basil uses this 
metaphor in the midst of a section where he draws largely from 
this identical portion of the Republic, see below. 


Bas. 3. 584 C1: domep tvioyov vo dvonviov trav UBpev 
hepopevav tapacupopevov dryer Oar. 


Phaedr. 254 E: 0 & yvioyos .... Tod UBpicrod tamov éx TOV 
oddvT@Y . .. . OTdTAS TOY YaNLVOV, THY KaKNYOpov YABTTaV.... 
Kka0nuake. 


In Basil the connection of thought is that as the charioteer is 
disregarded by his frenzied steeds so is the mind disregarded in 
the ascendancy of the passions. This is the exact point in the 
elaborate comparison of the Phaedrus, 253 Dff., of the charioteer 
and his two horses, on which Thompson, ed. of Phaedrus, p. 45 
(note to 246 A), remarks: “All commentators, ancient and modern, 
have recognized in the charioteer and his pair of steeds the well- 
known triple division of the soul into the reasoning, the passionate, 
and the appetent principles (AoyoriKov, Oupuxdv, émiOvpntiKor) 
which lies at the root of Plato’s ethical doctrine.” 

The brief simile of Basil then with the warning against allow- 
ing the rational principle to be overcome by the other two seems 
to have been taken from the Phaedrus, and Wandinger here, 
op. cit., p. 46, n., refers very properly to that comparison. 

The last example to be presented in this chapter has to do with 
the fox of Archilochus to which reference has already been made 
on p. 20. Basil says in 3. 585 D6: tis ’Apysrcyou adwrrekos 
TO Kepdaddov Te Kal TroKirov Cyrooowev—and again in 588 B 4: 
oKLaypadiay Tia THS apeTAS ... . TWEepiyparrapueba. 

Rpb. 365 C: mpcOvpa pév Kal oxifjpa KiKd@ Tept éuavTov 


50 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


oKiaypadiav apeTns mepiypatrréov, THY Sé TOU copwradtov’ ApxiAdyou 
aroreca EAxTéov é&dmicbev Kepdaréav Kal mroiuirnv. 

Obviously Basil is giving a quotation word for word from Plato 
and it is interesting to note how he divides the passage of 
Plato into two phrases which are separated in his work by several 
pages. He probably had read the whole general section of the 
Republic bearing on this subject in preparation for his own treat- 
ment, as is shown above on the page cited. Such a striking 
comparison would remain vividly in his mind and he simply uses 
it again as he sees fit. 

_There are many other comparisons and metaphors which show 
more or less resemblance between Basil and Plato, but those cited 
here have been selected as among the most important and they 
are sufficient to prove the contention of this chapter that in this 
department also Basil is heavily indebted to Plato. 


GRAMMATICAL STATEMENTS. 


In this section will be presented a small number of passages 
relating to the grammatical structure of the sentence, in which the 
language of Basil bears a close resemblance to that of Plato. 
First, both authors similarly emphasize the importance of master- 
ing the elements before proceeding to anything more advanced. 
The letters must be learned before the syllables can be understood 
and the syllables lead up to the Adyos, Bas. 4. 69 C 3 and Theaet. 
203 A. Then comes the definition of the Adyos as that which is 
composed of cuvAdaBai Kal res, Bas. 4. 69 B 10, and this is 
practically the same as that given in Crat. 424 E, for though it 
is true that the Cratylus gives the complete course, letters, sylla- 
bles, words and sentence, while Basil mentions only syllables and 
words, A€€is in this usage apparently including dvoya and pha, 
as parts of the sentence, yet immediately afterwards as cited above 
in 69 C 3 he points out the necessity of the letters preceding the 
syllables and so they too must be assumed in their place in his 
analysis of the sentence. 

Next there is to be noted a similarity in the definition of évoua 
which Basil gives in 1, 681 C 10: trav yap ovowwy onmavtiKa Ta 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 51 


dvouata, ovx avTa ovcia, which is to be placed beside the Crat. 
388 C: dvoua apa didackadixcy ti éotiv dpyavov Kai SvaxpitiKov 
Ts ovoias. Now the fact that in Basil at the beginning of the 
second page following there appears a further parallelism to this 
section of the Cratylus is additional proof of borrowing, Bas. 1. 
685 A 7 and Crat. 385 E, where the similarity of expression and 
context is noticeable. The passage of the Cratylus is an elaborate 
treatise on names and their relations to objects, things, and it is 
the mpaypuata that have BéBasov ovciav. So Basil in discussing 
the Trinity says in the place cited, Ta mpdyuata tov dvoyaTev 
iaxupetepa, xTrA. Thus throughout this section Basil seems clearly 
to be indebted to Plato. 

Finally there is given in each work a division of Adyos into 
three forms, Bas. 3.477 A 2 f. and Theaet. 206 Cf. The first 
division of Basil is exactly the same as the first division of the 
Theaetetus, that is the description of Aoyos as the expression of 
thought in speech. The second division of Plato has to do with 
analysis or as it is expressed, the passage to the whole through the 
elements. Basil’s statement of his second category is quite different 
from this but in his elaboration of the subject he has considerable 
to say about the Adgyos representing complete thought, Bas. 477 
B15 f. There is no resemblance between the two works in the 
statements on the third division of Aeyos, but this circumstance 
does not destroy the general parallelism of the two passages 
which has been indicated. 


LITERARY ALLUSIONS. 


There are to be considered under this heading a few quotations 
and literary allusions given both by Basil and Plato, preceded by 
the citation of some parallel notes concerning the poets. 

Basil, in his address to Christian youths on education, devotes 
one of his early chapters to the consideration of the merits and 
demerits of the poets, basing his remarks on the discussion of the 
matter by Plato in the Republic 376 E ff. as is noted by Padelford, 
op. cit., p. 104, n. 5. Some of these parallelisms will be indicated. 

In the first place there are preliminary statements, Bas, 3. 568 


52 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


C 10 and Rpb. 377 C, in regard to the different kinds of poets 
and the decision on what of their works are to be accepted and 
what rejected, which are very similar, and especially to be noted 
is the description of the poet as wavtoéames in Basil which is to 
be compared with Rpb. 398 A where it is stated that the poet has 
the power of becoming wavtodards bd copias. Further on in 
569 A 4 Basil says that we should not commend the poets who 
represent the gods as scoffers or railers, or in love or intoxicated, 
nor yet when they define happiness as coincident with the loaded 
table and with ribald song. This is a condensation of a large 
section of the Republic in the closing chapters of the second and 
the opening chapters of the third book, where many illustrations, 
chiefly from Homer, are presented. Some particularly significant 
passages may be mentioned. Rpb. 379 E shows the same form 
of expression as that used by Basil, ‘we shall not commend the 
breaking of oaths,’ ete. And in regard to the railing and scoffing 
mentioned by Basil reference should be made to Rpb. 389 E. f. 
where Plato cites among other examples J/. 1. 225, oivoB8apes, 
kuvos bupat eyav, Kpabinv & éddgdoo, and to Rpb. 388 E f. 
with the quotation from I/. 1. 599, deBeortos 8 ap’ évapto yédos 
pakdpecor Ocoiow, | ws idov “Hdaiorov Sia dopata Tovrviovta. 

Finally the last part of Basil’s statement about happiness and 
its connection with the loaded table seems to have its source in 
Rpb. 390 A which criticises the remark of the wisest man, 
Odysseus, when he says that it seems to him most beautiful when 
tables are full to overflowing with flesh, Od. 9. 8. 

Basil passes next to the family quarrels of the gods, 3. 569 A 
11, “among them brother fights against brother, the parent 
against his children and the children against their parents.” On 
this subject too there is an extensive treatment in the same section 
of the Republic 377 E ff, where many concrete examples are given. 

The last count of Basil’s indictment against the poets has 
reference to those who describe the loves and adulteries of the gods, 
especially of Zeus the chief of the gods. This bears a close 
relationship to Rpb. 390 B f. where it is agreed that it is not 
proper to listen to a poet describing, for example, Zeus who forgets 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 53 


all things in his passion for Hera, J/. 14. 312 ff., or the illicit 
love of Ares and Aphrodite, Od. 8. 266 ff. 

Thus in this whole discussion then, although the treatment of 
Basil is very much condensed and all citation of examples from 
the poets has been omitted, it is clear that his source is the elabo- 
rate presentation of Plato. 

Bas. 3. 292 A 10: Kai tH pév yrdoon éEourvvcat, vd 8é 
THS xerpos Suehéyxyn. Also 501 D 6, and particularly 576 A 7: 
aAW’ 7) YAO@TTA pev Ouwpoxer, 7 SE Honv av@wortos, Kat Evpuridnv 
€pet. 

Theaet. 154 D, and particularly Conv. 199 A: 9 yA@TrTa odv 
brréaxeTo, 7 SE Ppnv ov. 

All these quotations are clearly variations of Euripides, Hippol. 
612, ) yA@TT’ ouwpoy’, 7 5é dpnv avdmotos. Hug, commentary 
on Conviv. l. c., points out how this verse was seized by the 
writers of comedy as the text for many attacks on Euripides, of 
which he cites Aristoph. Thesm. 275, Ran. 101, 1471. It thus 
passed into conversational language and became proverbial in use. 
It is impossible to say that Basil was in any way impelled to its 
use by its appearance in Plato, but on the contrary the fact that 
Basil in the third passage cited above gives the original more 
exactly than Plato would suggest that he was taking it at first 
hand, or at least following some other source. In his note on the 
use of this verse by Justin Martyr, Apol. I. 39, Prof. Gildersleeve 
ealls it “one of the most notorious and best-abused verses in 
Greek scenic poetry.” 

Now the chief reason for citing these passages in this connection 
is to illustrate the difficulty of proving a relation between such 
allusions. It is generally an impossible thing to do unless great 
assistance is rendered by the context. It must therefore not be 
imagined that the few examples in this chapter represent the sum 
total of all such allusions or quotations common to Plato and 
Basil. In the other cases where there is no more proof of relation- 
ship than in the present the references have been omitted. 

Next there are parallel passages on Odysseus and the Sirens in 
Bas. 3. 568 D3 and Conv. 216 A; and then we come to an 
elaborate discussion as to whether Homer and Hesiod are friends 


54 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


or foes of virtue. Basil in 3.572 B 13 declares distinctly that 
all the poetry of Homer is a praise of virtue and all things in his 
poetry lead up to this end, on the other hand Plato is quite as 
definite in Rpb. 600 E when he says that the poets from Homer 
on are imitators merely of the image of virtue. Plato indeed in 
this whole section of the Republic, 598 D ff., attacks the poets and 
particularly Homer because though they are considered masters of 
virtue, in fact they are only imitators of virtue and have no real 
knowledge of it. 

“Tt is clear,’ as Adam remarks, note on Rpb. 598 D, “that 
Plato is refuting a view of poetry which found enthusiastic advo- 
cates in his own time,” but Plato also in his turn is severely 
criticised. Griifenhan, Gesch. d. klass. Phil. III, p. 239, writing 
of the period from the time of Augustus to the end of the fourth 
century, states that in this period we find frequently an ethical view 
of the Homeric poems both in secular and Christian works. He 
continues, “so nennt Dion Chrysostomus in seiner zweiten Rede 
mept Paowdetas den Homer einen ‘ Verkiinder der Tugend,’ und 
Basilios der Grosse nahm gleichfalls an, dass Homer mit seinen 
Gedichten ein ‘ Lob der Tugend’ habe geben wollen.” He refers 
here to the passage of Basil cited above where considerable space 
is devoted to this discussion. Basil particularly mentions verses 
of Hesiod, a poet who is included with Homer in Plato’s criticism 
600 D, as written to guide men to virtue, as will be shown below. 
In general then it seems probable that Basil in this treatise on the 
education of Christian youths is distinctly refuting the Platonic 
theories in his advocacy of the study of the Homeric poems. 

The passage of Hesiod quoted and discussed by both authors, 
Bas. 3.572 A 8 and Rpb. 364 A ff., is from the Op. et Dies, 287 
f. tiv pév Tou KaxdTynTa Kal thadov Eat édéoOar | pyidios - dréyn 
pev 000s, para 6’ éyytOr valer.| rhs 8’ aperhs idpHta Geol 
mpotrapoifev EOnkav, KTH. 

Plato maintains that such passages of the poets as this from 
Hesiod impel the youths to vice; on the contrary says Basil, what 
other meaning could Hesiod have had except to incite them to 
virtue. Again after giving the quotation Basil repeats that in his 
opinion Hesiod had no other meaning than to incite us to virtue, 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 55 


plainly emphasizing his view of the matter in opposition to that 
of some one else, and without doubt criticising the statement in 
the Republic. 

Various circumstances help to support this theory. Both 
authors are dealing with the subject of the education of youths 
and Basil immediately before has discussed the degrading influence 
in education of the poets with their descriptions of the quarrels 
and debauches of the gods, ete., a section which, as has been shown 
on p. 52 finds its source in several chapters of the Republic shortly 
following the reference quoted in this connection. Now again 
Plato in this same passage, 365 C, introduces the comparison of 
the fox of Archilochus, which is used by Basil also near the end 
of this same treatise, see page 49. These facts then prove that 
Basil borrowed freely from this part of the Republic, abstracting 
and condensing as he pleased, and therefore, with the similarity of 
quotation and with the tone of Basil’s language added, there is 
little doubt that he had in mind this particular interpretation of 
Hesiod’s words given here by Plato. This view however is not 
accepted by Jahn, N. Jahrb. 49, p. 414, who opposes Hess and 
Niisslin in regard to it. But Jahn’s objection, that the use of 
Hesiod’s quotation in the two places is so entirely different that 
Basil could not have had this passage of Plato in mind, has 
already been answered. 

Another parallelism may be mentioned here taken from the 
same section of each work, which gives further evidence in 
support of this theory of relationship, Bas. 3.572 A 4 and pb. 
377 A. In these sections we have a very similar pair of phrases 
which relate to the education of the young. The idea stated in 
each case is that particular care must be taken with their training 
because in the young the character is most impressionable. Basil 
also repeats various words from Plato and there is no doubt of the 
relation of the two passages. See Jahn, NV. Jahrb. 49, p. 407. 

In conclusion of this chapter several other references may be 
mentioned. Bas. 3. 588 B 9 and Crat. 428 A quote and treat 
similarly another verse of Hesiod, O. et D. 361. Again Bas. 3. 
580 C 8 and Prot. 339 C quote the saying of Pittacus, yaderov 
écOrov Eupmevar. 


56 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


MIscELLANEOUsS PARALLELISMS. 


There still remain several parallel passages which could not be 
included in any of the foregoing chapters and so may be grouped 
together here. Only the most important examples will be cited. 

Bas. 3, 241 A 1, 624 D 1 and Rpb. 455 D consider the ques- 
tion of the equality of women with men. Basil says that women 
engage in warfare for Christ and do not plead the weakness of their 
bodies as excuse for abstaining therefrom and, he adds, many 
women have far excelled men. So Plato begins his statement 
with the remark that women frequently are better than men, ete. 
Plato’s advocacy of the equality of women ‘is part of a well- 
reasoned and deliberate attempt by the Socratic school to improve 
the position of women in Greece,” says Adam, Rpb. note to 451 
C. The movement seems to have been quite widespread and 
finally to have reached considerable magnitude, as it was savagely 
attacked by Aristophanes in his Heclestazusae. See Adam, Rpb. 
App. I to bk. V, on the relation of the fifth book of the Republic to 
Aristophanes’ Eecles., and Ivo Bruns, Frauenemancipation in 
Athen. 

This view of woman is of course fundamental in the Christian 
teaching, so we must not emphasize too much the similarity here, 
but it may be noted that Basil’s assignment of woman to warfare, 
in spite of the weakness of her body, is paralleled by Plato’s 
decision that she must take her position beside man, whether 
performing guard duty or engaged in active military expeditions. 
See Rpb. 466 C f. 

We come next to cite a pair of references on the subject of envy, 
Bas. 3. 252 C 11 and Theaet. 174 E. Basil is giving a descrip- 
tion of envy, which causes each man to desire the sphere of life 
above his own, the slave desires to be free, the free man to be 
well-born, etc., and in this list of positions desired is placed the 
nobility which attends the ability to trace one’s ancestors for seven 
generations. In the Theaetetus too this is placed beside great 
accumulation of wealth as one of the desirable things of life which 
is scorned by the student of philosophy there described. It is 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 57 


this tone of scorn and general parallelism of treatment together 
with the similarity of phrase that would suggest the dependence 
of one passage on the other. Stallbaum in his note on this refer- 
ence of the Theaetetus refers to Welcker, Theognis, Proleg. p. LI, 
who gives a brief discussion of this subject of genealogy as a 
claim to nobility. He cites but one parallel passage from the 
literature that bears particularly on our citation, and that is from 
Menander, Mein. IV, p. 229, which is not likely to have affected 
here the relation of Basil to Plato. 

Both our authors make declarations against the pampering of 
the body which show considerable parallelism, Bas. 3. 584 C 11 
and Rpb. 407 B. The contexts are somewhat similar. Plato 
cites various examples, as Phocylides and his maxim, 6e?, drav To 
non Bios 7, apetnv aoxeiv, 407 A, and Asclepius who either 
cured or killed but did not meddle with dietetics, 408 A. So 
Basil also introduces some illustrations, referring to Pythagoras 
who rebuked one of his scholars for growing fat, and to Plato 
who fearing the ascendancy of the body selected an unhealthy 
spot for the site of the Academy. 

Next both treat the subject from the point of view of the man 
of wealth. Plato maintains that in order to be able to devote 
such excessive care to his body a man must be wealthy, but that 
even though wealthy such a man would be an undesirable member 
of society, and the sons of Asclepius would not attend him were 
he richer than Midas. Similarly Basil argues that if a man disre- 
gards this attention to his body he has no need of riches, and 
this is the man who makes the good citizen. As an illustration 
to match the reference to Asclepius in Plato is mentioned the 
example of Diogenes, who in his scorn for the body and its pleas- 
ures showed himself richer than the Persian king. But additional 
evidence that Basil in this section is dependent on the Republic is 
furnished by the fact of the mention of Plato here twice by name, 
once as indicated above in connection with the selection of the 
site of the Academy, and again in 584 B 3 where a quotation is 
given. This quotation, which is to the effect that we must pay 
only sufficient attention to the body in order to keep it for the 
service of philosophy, is taken from the Republic 498 B, see p. 


58 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


37, and proves at least that Basil had the Republic in mind in his 
treatment of this question. 

These various considerations then, taken together with simil- 
arity of phraseology, the phrase 7 dyav attn Tov’ cwpatos 
emtméerdeva of Basil balancing the % weputt7 attn émipédera TOD 
c@uatos of Plato, the pos tiv wuynv éurddiov of the one 
corresponding to the pos apetnv éwrddios of the other, give 
considerable warrant for the belief that the earlier passage was 
the source of the later. 

Basil in this same discussion borrows still further from Plato 
and from the same book of the Republic. This time it is in 
connection with the subject of the good and bad modes of music 
and the influence which they exert. So the effect of the Phrygian 
mode is described in 3. 580 A 4 ff. where it is said of Timotheus 
that his skill in playing was so great that he could arouse passion 
by the harsh mode and soothe it again by playing the gentle mode. 
Thus once by the Phrygian mode he caused Alexander to leap to 
arms in the midst of the feast. Further in 581 D 6 the Dorian 
mode is approved because by it the player once caused a band of 
drunken revelers to cast away their crowns and to flee home 
ashamed. Likewise in the Republic the Dorian and Phrygian 
are commended and are the only modes to be allowed in the state, 
Rpb. 398 FE ff., where Socrates proceeds to describe these two 
modes in explanation of their selection. The one, the Dorian, is 
fitted for time of war and gives calmness and endurance in 
misfortune; the other, the Phrygian, is the mode for the time of 
peace, which gives moderation and wisdom. The one is the strain 
of courage, the other the strain of temperance. Obviously this is 
slightly different from the account of Basil but the fact that Basil 
has introduced this discussion in this section of his treatise on the 
education of youths, in connection with borrowings from the same 
passage of the Republic and with approval of the same modes 
praised by Socrates, is sufficient evidence of his indebtedness to 
Plato. 

Finally reference may be made to Bas. 3. 928 C 7 and Rpb. 
369 B; as well as to the passages Bas. 4. 752 A 4 and Rpb. 370 
B, where there is a certain degree of similarity to be noted. 


The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 59 


CONCLUSION. 


This study has not pretended or attempted to give the total 
influence of Plato on St. Basil, for such a task would be well-nigh 
impossible. We have observed that Basil was brought up in the 
Schools and traditions of Greece, he was trained under Greek 
influence and was taught by Greek instructors and without doubt 
Plato was his model from his earliest days and therefore influenced 
the whole formation of his style. Further the secondary influence 
of Plato can not be disregarded. It has been shown that he was 
the most popular of the classical authors with the early Church 
writers on account of his many statements that could be interpreted 
as bearing on Christianity, and Basil, by his acquaintance with the 
works of his predecessors, was still more imbued with this Platonic 
atmosphere. 

We have, however, attempted to show the more immediate and 
the more conscious imitation of Plato with the result that whereas 
Basil does not exhibit the extent of imitation to be seen in various 
of the other Fathers who have been mentioned, the reason for 
this is not far to seek. Justin Martyr in the Cohortatio ad 
Graecos (cp. p. 1) abounds in Platonic quotation, in Platonic 
reference and in Platonic imitation, but consider his Dialogue 
with Trypho on the doctrines of the Christian and the Jew, and 
the Platonic references are practically nil. So in Basil too the 
subject with which he is dealing is the determining factor and_ it is 
no surprise that his theological discussion on the Trinity seems to 
borrow little from the Greek philosophy. In our chapter then on 
the theology of Basil there is little said of the influence of Plato, 
for while some similarities are noted nothing of relationship can 
be proved. But in his statements on the subject of ethics there is 
more opportunity for Basil to borrow from Plato and more of such 
borrowings have been indicated, though Basil is still most practical 
in his teachings and serious in his aim to reach the people and has 
therefore nothing to do with theories of ethics. 

We have already stated that Basil was no philosopher and so 
he gives no space to purely philosophical discussions. But in 


60 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 


general throughout his works, here and there, a Platonic reminis- 
cence or imitation appears, especially in the form of a comparison 
or metaphor, which proves that even in his busy and practical life 
he did not forget his Plato. 

In the corpus of Basil, however, there are two works and two 
of the most famous works, in which the nature of the subject 
gives him a good opportunity to use Plato and where indeed we 
find that Plato is used to the full. The first of these is the 
Hexaemeron, which has been discussed thoroughly and on which 
the conclusions are stated on pages 33 ff., and the second is the 
Essay to youths on the study of classical literature, Acyos mpos 
tous véous, Migne 3. 564 C-589 B. In this short work are 
found two of the three direct quotations from Plato given by 
Basil, and on almost every page there is some more or less obvious 
reminiscence. These cases have been presented and discussed in 
their proper sections throughout this paper and we need only 
mention here that the collection of so many into such a small 
compass is proof of the observation just made, that when the 
nature of the subject permitted, Basil drew liberally from his 
distinguished source. 

Finally, then, the influence of Plato on St. Basil is exhibited in 
reminiscence, imitation and rarely quotation, sporadically through 
most of his works, and while in some there is little sign of it, in 
at least two it is most marked and noticeable. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 





The following were the chief works used : 


Ackermann, G. Das Christliche im Plato u. in der platonischen 

Philosophie. Hamburg, 1835. 

Adam, J. The Republic of Plato. Cambridge, 1902. 
Ast, F. Lexicon Platonicum. Leip., 1835-38. 
Bohringer, F. and P. Die Kirche Christi u. ihre Zeugen VII. 

Die drei Kappadozier. Stuttgart, 1875. 

Cocker, B. F. Christianity and Greek Philosophy. New York, 

1870. 

Farrar, F. W. Lives of the Fathers, St. Basil, II. New York, 

1889. 

Hermann, C. F. Platonis Dialogi. Leipzig, 1856-70. 
Huber, J. Die Philosophie der Kirchenviter. Miinchen, 1859. 
Jahn, A. Neue Jahrb. 49 (1847), p. 371 f. Supp. Band 13, p. 

455; Zeits. f. Alterthumsw. 10 (1843), p. 1012. 
Johnston, C. F. H. The Book of St. Basil on the Holy Spirit. 

Oxford, 1892. 

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Paris, 1714. 








EDR E: 


Theodore Leslie Shear was born in New London, New Hamp- 
shire, August 11, 1880. He received his preparatory education 
at the Halsey Collegiate School, New York City, and in the Fall 
of 1896 entered New York University where he graduated with 
the class of 1900. The year 1900-01 he devoted to graduate 
study in New York University under the supervision of Professor 
Sihler. In 1901 he entered Johns Hopkins University where he 
has since studied, pursuing work under Professors Gildersleeve, 
Bloomfield, K. F. Smith, and Associate Professors Miller and 
Wilson, to all of whom he desires to express his deep-felt grati- 
tude, and especially to Professor Gildersleeve for the inspiration 
of his teaching. 


May, 1904. 











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